The first priority was the defeat of Germany. The Americans favored an immediate cross-Channel invasion, but Britain was not enthusiastic. By early 1942 North Africa had still to be cleared, and Allied shipping in the Atlantic was still under heavy attack by German U-boats. Churchill therefore persuaded the Americans to concentrate on these two areas first, together with a combined bombing offensive against German cities.
By early 1943 new tactics and weapons had given victory to the Allies in the Atlantic. In North Africa, the tide was turned at Alamein in October 1942 by British forces under General (later Field Marshal) Bernard Montgomery (1887-1976). Simultaneously Anglo-US forces invaded French North Africa and, although the Axis forces fought stubbornly for Tunisia, victory was attained by May 1943.
The Americans called again for a cross-Channel assault, but the Mediterranean still took priority. In July 1943 Allied forces invaded Sicily then, in September, southern Italy. Mussolini was overthrown and the Italians surrendered, but German units rushed south to fill the breach. The Allied advance soon stalled in mountains to the south of Rome, centered on Monte Cassino. Despite an amphibious landing at Anzio (January 1944), Cassino was not taken until May. Rome was liberated on 4 June.
The raising of the Mary Rose. Henry VIII's greatest warship sank in 1545 off the coast of Hampshire while on the way to fight the French. Her remains were salvaged in 1982 in a complicated operation and are now exhibited at Portsmouth. Various artifacts were brought up with the ship which have helped historians in their understanding of the period.
Discovering the Past (1 of 4)
History in its widest sense is the study of humanity's past. In a narrower sense, history is often contrasted with archaeology, the former studying written and oral records, and the latter examining physical remains such as buildings and artifacts. While history in this sense has been written since the time of the ancient Greeks, true archaeological investigation only began in the 18th century. The basic aims of history are to record and explain. This was recognized already by the `Father of History', Herodotus (c. 485-c. 420 BC), who wrote his account of the war between Persia and the Greeks `in order to preserve the memory of past events, and the fame of the great and wonderful achievements of both Greeks and Persians, and in addition to show how the two peoples came to make war on one another'.
Other historians have combined these basic aims with their own philosophies. The Chronicles of Raphael Holinshed (d. ?1580), for example, are Tudor propaganda, doing down the English kings (such as Richard III) whom the Tudors replaced. The 19th-century Whig historians in Britain, such as Lord Macaulay (1800-59), saw history in terms of progress towards the present, while Marxists interpret it as an illustration of the class struggle.
Most historians today try to adopt as impartial a view as possible, but history can never be a wholly objective study - even the selection of facts is an act of interpretation reflecting the culture and ideology of the historian, and the period in which he or she is writing.
As much as possible, however, historians try to avoid applying the values and beliefs of the present to their interpretation of the past. It is not valid, for example, to denounce 19th-century European imperialism simply as an exploitation of the colonized countries, when many of the imperialists themselves felt they were bringing a `higher civilization' to those countries. We may argue that they were mistaken, but to understand their motives it is important to try to put ourselves in their shoes - an exercise of historical imagination known as empathy.
Historical evidence
Before the historian can begin to impose a pattern on the facts, those facts must first of all be established. The raw material of history is found in primary sources, records written by the people involved in the events being studied. Such records may be government and legal papers, wills, maps, leases, letters or diaries. In addition, statistical evidence may be extracted from census returns or birth and marriage registers. Secondary sources are studies of primary sources made at a later date, and may include anything from newspaper reports to the writings of previous historians.
All sources may include (sometimes unknowingly) an interpretation of events. In these cases the critical reader must ask `What is the attitude of the writer to the events he or she is describing? How close to the events was he or she?' This is also true of oral evidence - the recollections of living people - since memories distort and fade.
Egyptian hieroglyphs. Such written records are the raw materials of history.
Discovering the past (2 of 4)
Archaeological evidence
In addition to written or oral evidence, the historian may also draw on archaeological evidence - not only for periods for which no written records exist, but also for later periods where the written records are scarce or fragmentary.
Artifacts such as pottery, glass and most metals survive well (though usually in fragments), while objects made of organic substances (wood, leather and textiles) often only survive in waterlogged sites such as ports or rivers or in exceptionally arid conditions, as in Egypt. When objects are found in their original (primary) position in buildings, as opposed to being thrown away somewhere else (secondary), we can reconstruct the functions of rooms or spaces - how they were used for industrial, ceremonial, or domestic purposes.
Human bones provide details of the age- and sex-structure of the population, congenital disorders, famine, weather conditions, blood types and diseases of the skeleton. Animal bones, shells and dried excrement furnish information on diet and farming techniques. Environmental factors such as climate or pollution can be studied by looking at seeds, pollen counts, insects and the remains of microscopic organisms.
This diagram shows how the archaeologist analyses strata in the ground, as shown by a section (vertical cut) through the wall of a building. The layers or contexts are numbered as they are excavated, and their stratigraphic links shown in the matrix. The sequence of construction, use and destruction of the building can be reconstructed using the matrix. The latest dates from each layer - from artifacts or dating mechanisms such as carbon-14 - will be added to the matrix, to find out the overall dates for the phases shown. Note that some layers have no finds.
The above example shows a Roman street and building laid out in the 1st century AD, with internal floors renewed in the 2nd century. The street and building were destroyed in the 5th century: note how layer 4 has later material than layer 7, and therefore the destruction is dated by the later material. Note also the misleading finds in layer 2, filling the pit 3; this pit was dug after the 5th century, but contains residual 1st-century finds (probably from layer 13).
Discovering the Past (3 of 4)
Excavation
Some archaeological research is designed to answer specific questions, but much of it nowadays is rescue archaeology, which attempts to preserve a record of what was there before a site is destroyed by building work, deep plowing, quarrying or new roads.
The first question every archaeologist is asked is `How did you know where to dig?' There are two kinds of helpful evidence: previous written records (including maps) of what stood on the site and what it was used for, and prospecting methods such as aerial photography (which, with the use of specialist techniques, can also identify monuments beneath the ground) or remote sensing on the ground.
The main task of archaeological recording is to note even the smallest evidence of past human activity - a layer, a ditch, a wall. These are called contexts, and they are given numbers so that information about them, and the artifacts from them, can be stored separately. The context will be surveyed and probably photographed before it is removed to uncover the one below; it may also be sampled for environmental or industrial residues.
The contexts are ordered to show the succession of layers representing the history of the site - construction, occupation, destruction, decay - and natural actions such as river flooding or erosion. The stratigraphy of a site is the record of its various layers, which can be shown in a scale drawing and in diagrammatic form as a matrix . The stratigraphy is the basis of all future research. Once the dates are established, these are then added to the matrix.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* THE CELTS
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Discovering the Past (page 4)
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Archaeological site of Pompeii was found buried under volcanic ash.
Discovering the Past (4 of 4)
Methods of dating
Dates may be established by examining historical records, or by comparing the finds with similar finds of known date -a method known as typology.
Various scientific techniques are also used. Radiocarbon dating is based on the fact that all living material (such as wood) absorbs small amounts of radioactive carbon-14, which reduces by a known amount over time once the material is dead. In general this method is useful only for prehistoric periods, because of its margin of error.
Dendrochronology (tree-dating) is far more precise, being based on the annual growth rings in trees, and is especially useful for the Roman and later historic periods. Variations in the width between rings correspond with climatic changes, and so timber used in a building can be compared with other timber of known age.
The range of history and archaeology
Archaeologists, particularly those working on the prehistoric period, have looked at very wide factors over large regions, giving rise to conflicting theories as to whether cultures spread by invasion - the invasion hypothesis - or by autonomous development - the continuity hypothesis . Today, in addition, the archaeologist is interested in identifying small groups within communities - village, town or city - and working out how these groups rose and fell, interacted with each other, and disappeared from view.
Similarly, while some historians are concerned with large-scale patterns underlying the changes in societies and civilizations, others restrict themselves to particular aspects or specific locations. History is not just about the actions of monarchs and statesmen, but may also concern itself with such things as the ebb and flow of population, variations in standards of living, fashions, and the spread of technology. All human activity belongs to history, and we ourselves cannot stand apart from it. History starts yesterday.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* THE CELTS
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Human Prehistory (page 1)
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A Neolithic house at Skara Brae, in the Orkney Islands, dating from c. 3000 BC. There are several such semi-underground houses at the site, interlinked by covered passages. Because there were no local trees, furniture was made out of stone. Buried by sand for centuries, the site was exposed by a great storm in 1850.
Human Prehistory (1 of 5)
Prehistory is the period of time before written documents, the normal means by which historic events are recorded and dated. Before the development of scientific dating methods after World War II, dating methods were largely relative - in other words, definite dates were not assigned, but instead it was simply indicated whether a period came before or after certain important technological developments of unknown date. The division of human prehistory into the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age, based on the materials used for tools, was introduced in the early 19th century. This `Three Age System' was further developed in the late 19th century by subdividing the Stone Age into the Palaeolithic (`Old Stone'), Mesolithic (`Middle Stone'), and Neolithic (`New Stone') Ages. These technologically based divisions remain useful for European prehistory, but they are not always valid in other parts of the world.
The Palaeolithic
Most of the Palaeolithic developments in Europe, and in Asia outside the tropics, occurred against a background of a much colder climate, associated with the growth of vast ice sheets in northern latitudes, and extensive glacier development in more southerly latitudes, including the Alps and the Balkans. This was the last Ice Age.
The causes, and exact number, of the cold periods, which were separated by warmer phases, are not clearly understood; nor is their age well established, since scientific methods have as yet not been very successful in dating this geological time span. However, the last cold phase ended about 10 000 years ago and the different warm and cold phases can be recognized archaeologically because of the preservation of the bones of characteristic animals and even the pollen of particular trees, which indicate warmer or colder periods. They thus provide a useful relative chronology in which to place human developments. Archaeologists also use developments in stone-tool types to subdivide the Palaeolithic into Lower (i.e. earliest), Middle, and Upper phases.
* PHYSICAL EVOLUTION
* DISCOVERING THE PAST
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* THE CELTS
* FOR PREHISTORY OUTSIDE EUROPE AND THE NEAR EAST
* PREHISTORIC ART
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p362-2
ftsTitleOverride
Human Prehistory (page 2)
ftsTitle
Ancient cave paintings were discovered in this underwater cave in France. Paintings of buffalo, deer, and goat are found at the site.
Human Prehistory (2 of 5)
The Lower Palaeolithic
No certain finds of human fossils at the australopithecine stage of evolution, dated between 2 and 5 million years ago, have appeared outside Africa. The earliest human fossils in Europe and Africa belong to the Homo erectus evolutionary stage, dated between
1.5 million and 200 000 years ago, although in Europe and Asia outside the tropics there is no good evidence for human occupation before 1 million years ago. Homo erectus fossils have been discovered in France, Germany, China and Java.
The industries (i.e. tool types) used by Homo erectus belong to the Lower Palaeolithic. The most characteristic tool is the hand axe, a general-purpose implement made by striking off pieces of stone (flakes) from a lump of stone until the correct shape and cutting edge were produced. Simple tools made of flakes removed from a lump of stone (a core) were also used, sometimes improved by further flaking of the edges. Tools in materials other than stone very rarely survive, but a Lower Palaeolithic wooden spear point has been found in Essex, England. Even at this early stage humans used fire, as exemplified by the fire hardening of the spear.
While Lower Palaeolithic tools continued until about 100 000 years ago, it seems that between 300/200 000 and 100 000 years ago Homo erectus evolved into a more developed stage, at least in Europe. However, there is little evidence of this stage.
The Middle Palaeolithic
The Middle Palaeolithic stage, from 100 000 to as late as 30 000 years ago, is associated with the remains of Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, named after the Neandertal, a valley in Germany where remains were first found). While Homo erectus only occupied Eurasia during relatively warm periods, Neanderthals could exploit the arctic environments of the full glacial phases, living in caves and in skin tents held down by mammoth bones.
Middle Palaeolithic stone tools, made mainly from flakes, were more specialized than earlier tools, and included spear heads, knives and scraping tools for wood and hides. Neanderthals were the first humans to bury their dead, and they also had a sense of beauty: scientific analysis shows that at Shanidar cave in Iraq a Neanderthal was buried on a bed of spring flowers.
* PHYSICAL EVOLUTION
* DISCOVERING THE PAST
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* THE CELTS
* FOR PREHISTORY OUTSIDE EUROPE AND THE NEAR EAST
* PREHISTORIC ART
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Prehistory Three Ages
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p362-3
Stone Age Tools
Early Homo erectus hand axe, dating from the earliest part of the Lower Paleolithic. This was rough-hewn from a single piece of flint in a single stage involving about 25 blows.
Later Homo erectus hand axe, dating from the Lower Paleolithic. This was made in the same way as the earlier axe, but involved two stages and around 65 blows.
Neanderthal knife, dating from the Middle Paleolithic. This was made in three stages, involving chipping a flake from a flint core and then working in the flake. Over 100 blows would have been needed.
Cro-Magnon knife, dating from the Upper Paleolithic. This incredibly sharp knife represents the most advanced Paleolithic stone-working technology. A total of nine stages and 250 blows were required.
Human Prehistory (3 of 5)
The Upper Palaeolithic
There is still much scientific debate about the date of the first appearance of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens, also called Cro-Magnon man, after a cave in the Dordogne, France). However, it seems likely that in Europe and northern Asia they appeared relatively late - perhaps as late as 30 000 BC in Western Europe - although in some other parts of the world they had appeared before 40 000 BC.
In Eurasia, Upper Palaeolithic tools, associated with modern humans, have a number of characteristic features: stone tools were now based on blades (long, thin flakes), which were made into an even wider variety of specialized tools than previously. Bone tools also appear regularly for the first time. Another Upper Palaeolithic cultural achievement is the Ice Age art found, for example, in the prehistoric cave sites of France and Spain.
The achievements of these early modern humans include the peopling of the previously unoccupied continents of Australasia and the Americas. A less positive achievement is the extinction of a number of large mammal species towards the end of the last Ice Age (about 8000 BC), at least partially as a result of the efficient hunting methods of Upper Palaeolithic peoples.
The Mesolithic
The end of the Ice Age saw significantly increased temperatures and rainfall in Europe and parts of Asia. A largely treeless environment was replaced by forest, especially in Europe north of the Alps, and mammal species adapted to tundra and steppe environments were replaced by forest species. Humans adapted to these changes by living in smaller groups and exploiting the increased numbers of wildfowl and fish. In Eurasia use of the bow and arrow became important in this period.
* PHYSICAL EVOLUTION
* DISCOVERING THE PAST
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* THE CELTS
* FOR PREHISTORY OUTSIDE EUROPE AND THE NEAR EAST
* PREHISTORIC ART
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Human Prehistory (page 3)
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p362-4
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Human Prehistory (4 of 5)
The Neolithic
The earliest Neolithic cultures, defined by the appearance of agriculture as a way of life, are found in the Near East, in an area between Turkey and Israel in the west and Iran in the east. In this area the wild ancestors of wheat and barley, and of sheep, goats, pigs and cattle all occurred. The earliest Neolithic sites date to the period 9000-7000 BC, contemporary with the Mesolithic period in Europe. But in the Near East the climatic changes associated with the end of the Ice Age were far less marked than in Europe, and population pressure is a more likely explanation for the beginnings of agriculture than climatic change. By 6000 BC some substantial towns existed in the Near East.
The spread of agriculture was relatively rapid: Neolithic sites in Greece start before 6000 BC and appear in Britain by 4000 BC. During the 2000-3000-year life span of the Neolithic, considerable social distinctions emerged along with increasingly centralized political power. These developments are associated with the building of large burial and ceremonial monuments in earth and stone that began in many parts of Europe at this time. Specialized production of, and widespread trade in, a variety of objects and materials also developed.
The Bronze Age
Copper and gold were the main metals used during the Bronze Age (bronze is an alloy: a mixture of copper with a little tin). The production of metal objects is a complex process, but the discovery of metallurgy probably occurred independently in several places, including the Near East, southeast Europe and southwest Asia. In parts of Europe and the Near East, small numbers of simple copper objects were in use many centuries before the beginning of the Bronze Age: this transitional period is called the Chalcolithic (`copper-stone') Age.
Social distinctions increased as more powerful individuals displayed their status via bronze weapons and gold jewelry. The status and power of certain individuals was particularly marked in the Later Bronze Age, as shown by various imposing grave monuments and offerings, such as the Mycenaean shaft graves, and bronze weapons and armor in a number of central European graves.
* PHYSICAL EVOLUTION
* DISCOVERING THE PAST
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* THE CELTS
* FOR PREHISTORY OUTSIDE EUROPE AND THE NEAR EAST
* PREHISTORIC ART
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Human Prehistory (page 4)
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Human Prehistory (page 5)
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The standing stones at Carnac in France, erected around 2000 BC. This megalithic (`giant stone') monument consists of nearly 3000 standing stones (or menhirs) arranged in several long, parallel rows - some over 1 km (0.6 mi) in length. The amount of manpower and effort involved in constructing such megaliths as Carnac and Stonehenge indicates the strong social and cultural cohesion of local Neolithic societies.
Human Prehistory (5 of 5)
The Iron Age
The development of iron working in the Near East and its spread, starting at about 1000 BC, had little immediate effect on late Bronze Age cultures. The recognizably Celtic societies of Iron Age temperate Europe developed directly out of later Bronze Age cultures. European Iron Age societies had increasing contacts with Greece and Rome, first through trade, but later through the invasion of much of Celtic Europe by the Romans. This put an end to prehistory in those areas. However, the peripheries of Europe (Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia, northern Germany) were never colonized by the Romans. The emergence of these areas from prehistory only occurred gradually, within the last 1500 years, after their conversion to Christianity.
Assyrian archers during the siege of a town by the forces of Ashurnasirpal II. The lengthy campaigns of Ashurnasirpal - among the first to use cavalry and battering rams - greatly enlarged the Assyrian empire.
The Ancient Near East (1 of 4)
The Ancient Near East has been called the cradle of Western Civilization. To its people we owe the invention of agriculture, the wheel, writing and the alphabet. The region known as the Near East comprises the countries on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, together with modern Turkey, Iran (ancient Persia), Egypt, and Iraq (ancient Mesopotamia, consisting of Babylonia and Assyria).
This agriculturally rich area is sometimes called the `Fertile Crescent'.
The world's first cities arose between 4000 and 3000 BC in Mesopotamia, which in Greek means `the land of the two rivers'. These rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, flooded their banks during the spring and made the surrounding plain extremely fertile.
The Mesopotamian farmers had to build a complex system of canals, dikes and reservoirs to control the annual floods. This required a great deal of organization and cooperation. Variations in the fertility of the soil led to differences in individual wealth - and hence to the emergence of social classes. Food surpluses allowed some people to give up farming and become craftsmen, laborers, merchants and administrators. These developments created a need for centralized decision making, regulation and control: the beginnings of urban civilization.
The Sumerians
In southern Babylonia, between 3500 and 3000 BC, buildings became progressively larger and more elaborate. The best example is the White Temple at Uruk, built on a high platform. The wheel was invented at around the same period. The earliest writing - simple pictures drawn on clay - developed probably because of the need for record keeping in an ever more complex society.
We call these people Sumerians, from the ancient name for southern Babylonia, `Sumer'. Each Sumerian city had a king, whose power was believed to come from the gods. Throughout the so-called Early Dynastic period (c. 2900-2370 BC) the Sumerian rulers fought each other for supremacy over their land.
The Akkadians and the Sumerian renaissance
About 2370 BC, Sargon of Akkad conquered Babylonia. He and his successors spoke a Semitic language we call Akkadian. Akkadian was written in the cuneiform script borrowed from Sumerian, and it replaced Sumerian as the official language. The Akkadian empire expanded rapidly, but was faced with constant rebellions. It was overrun about 2200 BC by the mountain people of Gutium.
After 100 years of anarchy, the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2113-2006 BC) was founded by Ur-Nammu. He and his successors were great warriors, but this was also a century of prosperity. The kings created an efficient, centralized administrative system, rebuilt temples, and encouraged a renaissance in Sumerian art and literature.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ART OF THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST AND EGYPT
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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p364-2
The Ancient Near East (2 of 4)
Hammurabi of Babylon
The end of Sumerian rule was marked by the sack of Ur in c. 2006 BC by the Elamites (a people of ancient Iran). The small kingdoms of Mesopotamia fought for sovereignty for 200 years. Many were ruled by Amorites, originally nomads from the Syrian desert.
Eventually one of these Amorite kings, Hammurabi of Babylon (c. 1792-1750 BC),defeated his rival states of Ashur and Mari and conquered the whole of Mesopotamia. He is best known for his law code, whose harsh punishments were tempered by its clarification of individual rights. After Hammurabi's death, the empire was weakened, and Babylon was plundered by the Hittites (see below) in c. 1595 BC.
Empire and diplomacy
The period from c. 1600 to 1200 BC in the Near East is one of powerful empires struggling for control through military and diplomatic means. There was a balance of forces between the Kassites in Babylonia, the Mitannians in Palestine and eastern Syria, the Egyptian empire in Palestine and southern Syria, and later the Assyrians in northern Mesopotamia and the Hittites in Anatolia (modern Turkey) and northern Syria.
With its capital at Hattusas (modern Boghazkoy), the Hittite empire was founded in about 1650 BC. The empire reached its peak under Suppiluliumas I (c. 1380-1350 BC), who extended its frontiers and clashed with the Egyptian empire in Syria. Hostilities between the two powers continued until c. 1283 BC when the Hittite king, Hattusilis III, signed a treaty with Ramses II of Egypt.
Cuneiform was still the international script, although the first alphabet was invented in Syria or Palestine in the 16th century BC. A 14th-century BC archive of cuneiform letters from Amarna in Egypt reveals correspondence between the `Great Kings'. They frequently sent envoys and presents, and even married each other's daughters.
About 1200 BC many of the Near Eastern kingdoms collapsed. A major cause were the `Sea Peoples', marauders from the eastern Mediterranean, who were eventually defeated by the Egyptian pharaohs Merenptah and Ramses III.
Iron Age kingdoms
After c. 1200 BC there was a new look to the Near East. The Philistines, on the coast of southern Palestine, were originally one group of the Sea Peoples. Their battles against the Israelites are recorded in the Old Testament.
The Phoenicians, on the Lebanese and Syrian coast, became great seafaring traders, sailing as far as Britain to purchase Cornish tin. They also founded colonies such as Carthage in North Africa. Carthage in turn grew to dominate the western Mediterranean, until finally defeated by the Romans in the 3rd century BC.
The Aramaeans occupied Syria and frequently fought the Assyrians and Israelites. Aramaic became the international language and script of the Near East, and was the original language of some of the later books of the Old Testament.
The survivors of the Hittite empire, whom we call Neo-Hittites, ruled seven city-states in northern Syria. They fought successfully against the Aramaeans, but were conquered by the Assyrians in the 8th century BC.
The Israelite exodus and conquest
The Old Testament records the exodus of the Jews from Egypt under Moses, and their conquest of Canaan (Palestine) under Joshua. The Israelites destroyed many Canaanite towns, notably Jericho and Ai. The conventional date for the conquest is c. 1230 BC.
However, archaeological evidence does not appear to confirm the biblical version. It is likely that in reality the process was more complex, with different tribes coming into possession of the land at different times and in different ways.
About 1000 BC a united kingdom of Israel arose, with Saul and David as its first kings. Following the death of David's son and successor, Solomon, the kingdom divided into two - Israel in the north and Judah in the south.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ART OF THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST AND EGYPT
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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The Ancient Near East (page 2)
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The Ancient Near East (3 of 4)
The Assyrian empire
The kingdom of Assyria, with its traditional capital at Ashur, was located in northern Mesopotamia. From the 9th century BC on, its kings campaigned to the west against the Aramaeans. Eventually they reached the Mediterranean Sea and even briefly invaded Egypt. Tiglathpileser III (744-727 BC) proclaimed himself king of Babylon, and for the next hundred years Babylonia struggled for independence from Assyria.
Conquered areas paid tribute in food and animals to supply Assyrian troops. A common Assyrian practice was to deport the populations of whole cities or areas as punishment for rebellion, and resettle them elsewhere in the empire.
Assyria was always vulnerable on its eastern and northern frontiers to peoples like the Medes and Scythians. Towards the end of the 7th century BC Assyrian cities fell one by one. Nineveh was destroyed in 612 BC by an alliance of Medes and the Chaldaean kings of Babylonia.
The Neo-Babylonian empire
The Babylonian success was short-lived. Nebuchadnezzar defeated the Egyptians at Carchemish in 605 BC and campaigned extensively in Syria and Palestine. He captured Jerusalem in 587 BC and deported thousands of Jews to Babylonia.
However, his successors were weak; the last king, Nabonidus, spent several years of his reign at Teima in Arabia. In 539 BC Babylon fell without resistance to the Persian ruler Cyrus, of the Achaemenid dynasty.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ART OF THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST AND EGYPT
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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The Ancient Near East (page 3)
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p364-4
The Ancient Near East (4 of 4)
The Persian empire
The empire of the Persian Achaemenids became the largest yet known in the Near East. From their homeland in what is now Iran, the successors of Cyrus conquered Egypt, northern India and Asia Minor (modern Turkey), and frequently came into conflict with the Greeks.
Darius I (521-486 BC) reorganized the provinces (satrapies) and the army, introduced coinage, legal and postal systems, and dug a canal linking the Nile with the Red Sea. His successor, Xerxes, crushed rebellions ruthlessly and is generally thought to have instigated a new policy of suppressing foreign religions. This was a reversal of the religious tolerance of Cyrus, who had freed Babylonia's Jews and given them permission to build their temple in Jerusalem.
Economic decline, revolts, murder and harem conspiracies weakened the Persian throne. The capital Persepolis fell to Alexander the Great in April 330 BC, and the last Achaemenid, Darius III, was murdered in the same year.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ART OF THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST AND EGYPT
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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Ancient Egypt (page 1)
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The Sphinx and Pyramids of Giza. The Pyramids are monumental tombs dating from the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 BC), and show that the pharaoh was the dominant figure of the state. The Sphinx, a mythological figure of a lion with a human head, is thought to date from the same time.
y Ancient Egypt (1 of 4)
`Concerning Egypt itself, I shall extend my remarks to a great length, because there is no country that possesses so many wonders.' So wrote the Greek writer Herodotus in the 5th century BC. Egypt's ancient civilization has continued to interest and fascinate. Geographically isolated by deserts and sea, it developed a unique and self-contained culture that lasted three thousand years. Its dry climate has contributed to the preservation of a wealth of monuments: ancient cities, pyramids, temples and sumptuous artifacts that are a source of wonder today, as they were in antiquity.
With the decipherment of hieroglyphic script in 1822 by the French scholar Jean-Francois Champollion, it became possible to read and understand the written documents of the ancient Egyptians: religious and historical texts, literary compositions, and the many documents that illustrate aspects of their daily lives.
Geography and resources
Ancient Egypt consisted of the Nile Valley - a long and narrow strip of land extending some 600 miles from Aswan to the area south of modern Cairo, where the river opened up into the Delta. On either side of the valley stretched vast expanses of desert. The Nile was not only the unifying feature of the country, it was also its main source of life. In Egypt rainfall is negligible, but in antiquity the regular annual inundation of the Nile between July and October covered most of the land in the valley and in the Delta, laying down a rich layer of fertilizing silt. Agriculture involved careful management of the waters of the river through the creation of irrigation basins and channels. The main crops were cereals, but pulses, vegetables and fruit were also grown. Flax was used for clothing, sails and ropes, and the pith of the papyrus plant to produce a type of paper. The Egyptians also kept cattle, pigs, goats and sheep, and hunting and fishing provided some additional variety to their diet.
Ancient Egypt was rich in mineral resources - gold, copper and turquoise - and building and semiprecious stones were also quarried. Trading expeditions brought to Egypt the resources that the country lacked: wood from the Lebanon; oil, wine and silver from western Asia; lapis lazuli from Afghanistan; and incense, ebony, ivory, precious stones and exotic animals from the semi-mythical land of Punt, situated somewhere in the area of modern Eritrea or Somalia.
The temple of Queen Hatshepsut at Dayr al-Bahri. The temple - designed as a funerary monument to Hatshepsut and her father Thutmose I - is decorated with reliefs recording the major events of her 20-year reign (c. 1540-c. 1481 BC).
Ancient Egypt (2 of 4)
The Early Dynastic Period and the Old Kingdom
It is customary to divide the history of ancient Egypt into thirty dynasties of pharaohs (as the kings of ancient Egypt were known. The history of Pharaonic Egypt begins around 3100 BC with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under a king known to history as Menes. Though it is impossible to trace the events leading to the unification of the country, evidence suggests that the Delta area was conquered by rulers from the south.
During the Early Dynastic (or Archaic) Period, a considerable administrative organization of the state took place. A new capital, Memphis, was founded at the junction of Upper and Lower Egypt. There was a dramatic development in the science of writing, no doubt to keep pace with the requirements of a centralized bureaucratic government. Burial customs became more complex, and the first pyramid was built - the Step Pyramid at Saqqara.
This formative period led to the tremendous achievements of the Old Kingdom, the great pyramid age of Egypt. Written records indicate that all aspects of government and administration were controlled by the pharaoh from the royal residence at Memphis. The monumental size of the Great Pyramids at Giza - in which the pharaohs were buried - clearly shows that the pharaoh was the dominant figure of the state, acting as an intermediary between the gods and mankind. The construction of these enormous monuments is also evidence of the degree of state organization that the Egyptians had achieved. At the same time the horizons of the Egyptians expanded, with trading expeditions to Nubia, Sinai, Libya and the Levant all recorded.
The Middle Kingdom
A relaxation of the strong personal authority of the pharaohs towards the end of the 5th and during the 6th dynasty resulted in a complete breakdown of royal power during what has been called the First Intermediate Period. For about a hundred years, a number of rival princes claimed the kingship of Upper and Lower Egypt. Civil wars broke out and there is evidence of famine.
Pharaoh Mentuhotep II of the 11th dynasty finally succeeded in taking control of the whole country. The period that followed this reunification of Egypt is known as the Middle Kingdom, and it was regarded in later tradition as the `classical' period of Pharaonic civilization. Under the strong kings of the 12th dynasty, Egypt once again became a highly centralized and well-administered state, and a new capital, Itj-towy, was founded south of Memphis. The practice of co-regency was instituted at the very beginning of the dynasty, whereby the ruling pharaoh nominated his successor as co-regent and reigned with him for the last years of his rule.
Administrative reforms removed from the provincial nobility much of the power they had acquired during the First Intermediate Period. In foreign affairs, contacts with the Levant were re-established and in Nubia a series of fortresses was constructed along the Nile, to secure the southern boundaries and to regulate all trade into Egypt.
A series of short-lived reigns during the 13th dynasty was followed by the Second Intermediate Period, during which the political control of the land was once again fragmented. Of the four dynasties assigned to this period, two are native Egyptian (the 14th and 17th dynasties), while two are allotted to foreign Asiatic rulers, the Hyksos kings (the 15th and 16th dynasties). The Hyksos rulers were remembered later as hated foreign usurpers, and were eventually expelled by a new Theban dynasty.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT
* THE RISE OF ROME
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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p366-3
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Ancient Egypt (page 3)
ftsTitle
In the tomb of Queen Nefertari, 3000 year old wall paintings can be seen. The tomb has been closed, due to deterioration caused by perspiration from visitors.
Ancient Egypt (3 of 4)
The New Kingdom
The memory of the Hyksos domination of Egypt was largely responsible for shaping the policies of the New Kingdom rulers. The pharaohs of the 18th and 19th dynasties were true war leaders: at the head of their armies, they extended their territories from Syria to southern Sudan. Egypt became the largest empire of the ancient Near East. Diplomatic contacts were established with other great powers of the period - the Hittites, Babylonians and Assyrians - and peace treaties were concluded between them, often cemented by dynastic marriages between the pharaohs and foreign princesses.
Enormous wealth poured into Egypt from the various regions of the empire. From the ancient capital of Memphis and their new religious center of Thebes, the New Kingdom pharaohs undertook a large number of building projects. The grandiose temple complex of Karnak was built not only as the main cult temple for the state god Amun-Ra, but also as the treasury of the state. The royal tombs were situated, for security reasons, in the `Valley of the Kings', a remote canyon on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes. Vast mortuary temples, palaces and shrines were erected, and during the reign of Ramses II, a new capital city was founded at Per-Ramesses in the Delta. The artistic output of this period is unsurpassed, both in quantity and in craftsmanship.
The Late Period
However, around the late 19th and 20th dynasties, Egypt once again went into decline. Invaders from Libya and the `Sea Peoples' from the eastern Mediterranean were among those Ramses III claimed to have repulsed. Egypt's control over her empire disintegrated, and a series of weak kings resulted in much of royal power being usurped by the high priest of Amun. The final collapse of the New Kingdom saw once more the division of the country into two halves, with Upper Egypt ruled by the priesthood of Amun in Thebes, while the pharaohs governed from their new capital at Tanis in the Delta. This period is usually referred to as the Third Intermediate Period.
During the 25th dynasty, Egypt was taken over by Nubian pharaohs. It was not until the 26th dynasty that the country was reunited under the rule of the strong and able Saite kings, who restored order and recreated some of the splendor of the past. But in 525 BC the Persians under Cambyses invaded Egypt. The conquest by the Achaemenid Persians meant the end of Egypt's independence. In 332 BC Alexander the Great defeated the Persians and was crowned pharaoh of Egypt. At his death, his general Ptolemy took control of the country, founding a line of kings who were to rule for some three hundred years until Egypt was annexed as a province of the Roman Empire.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT
* THE RISE OF ROME
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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Queen Nefertari tomb
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p366-4
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Ancient Egypt (page 4)
ftsTitle
Gold relief of Tutankhamun hunting. The cult of a single god, Aten, introduced by Akhenaton and his wife, was opposed by the powerful priests of Amun. The cult was ended after the accession of the young Tutankhamun.
Ancient Egypt (4 of 4)
THE PERIODS AND DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT EGYPT
Dates (BC) Period Dynasties Main events
3100-2725 Early Dynastic Period 1-3 Unification of Upper and Lower
Egypt under Menes. Foundation
of Memphis. Building of
Step Pyramid.
2575-2134 Old Kingdom 4-8 Centralized administration.
Building of
Great Pyramids at Giza.
2134-2040 First Intermediate Period 9-11 Egypt divided. Political
fragmentation.
Control by local monarchs.
2040-1640 Middle Kingdom 11-13 Reunification under Mentuhotep
II. Foundation of Itj-towy.
Administrative
reforms. Co-regencies.
Conquest of Nubia.
1640-1552 Second Intermediate 14-17 Hyksos rule. Theban dynasty
Period liberates Egypt.
1552-1070 New Kingdom 18-20 Imperial Egypt: empire extends
from Syria to southern Sudan.
Capital at Thebes. Great
building program.
1070-712 Third Intermediate 21-24 Egypt divided: priesthood of
Period Amun rule in Thebes, while
pharaohs rule in Tanis.
712-332 Late Period 25-30 Reunification of Egypt under 26th
Dynasty. Persian invasion.
Conquest by Alexander the Great:
end of the line of native pharaohs.
............................................................................................. by Alexander the Great: end of the
line of native
pharaohs.11
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT
* THE RISE OF ROME
* RELIGIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* WRITING SYSTEMS
* THE MAKING OF MYTHS
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Minoans and Mycenaeans (page 1)
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The palace at Knossos, the greatest of the Minoan palaces on Crete. The palace was excavated and partially restored between 1899 and 1935 by the British archaeologist, Sir Arthur Evans, the first man to discover the remains of Minoan civilization. The complex floor-plan of the palace may have given rise to the later Greek myth of the labyrinth, in which the Minotaur - a man with a bull's head - lurked in wait for Theseus.
Minoans and Mycenaeans (1 of 4)
Long before the classical era two great civilizations flourished in the area of the Aegean Sea. The existence of the Minoans and the Mycenaeans was unknown until late in the 19th century. The Minoans were named after the legendary King Minos, and the Mycenaeans take their name from one of the major centers of their culture, the city of Mycenae, home of Agamemnon, the mythological king who led the Greeks against Troy. Minoan civilization, based on the island of Crete, reached its peak in the Middle and Late Bronze Age between 2200 and 1450 BC. The height of the Mycenaean culture of mainland Greece is slightly later - about 1500 to 1150 BC.
The rise of Minoan civilization
Early in the Middle Bronze Age, about 2200 BC, the first palaces began to be built on Crete, most notably at the sites of later palaces at Knossos and Phaistos. At this time writing also appeared in the Aegean region. The script, called Linear A, was mostly impressed on unbaked clay tablets, but signs painted or scratched on vases are also common. The language is as yet undeciphered, and practically all that can be determined is that the Minoans were not Greek-speakers. Some writing appears in religious contexts, although mostly it seems to have been used for administrative purposes.
It is not clear whether there was one great Minoan `king' or several smaller leaders ruling on Crete. There are several important palace sites - for example, Phaistos, Aghia Triadha and Mallia - but the palace at Knossos is by far the largest, so perhaps the most important king resided there. Another indication of centralized power is the fact that there is little local variation in Minoan, especially late Minoan, pottery, which may suggest it was controlled by (if not made in) a single center.
The Minoans were great seafarers, and there is evidence of some Minoan presence on the Aegean islands. There are many representations of ships and other marine motifs on pottery and wall paintings, and the palaces are full of beautiful things brought back from abroad. Crete is also mentioned in ancient Egyptian documents as `Kheftiu'.
The palace at Knossos
The palace, along with the luxurious houses that surrounded it, reveals much about the life of the Minoan elite. The palace alone covers about1.3 ha (3 acres). There is a large central courtyard, and the floor-plan is very complicated, with hundreds of rooms.
Little is known about the upper stories of the palace - there was at least one - but the ground floor and the basement rooms, which are probably not the grandest, are better preserved. Most striking are the large numbers of storage rooms, some filled with enormous storage jars, probably to hold wine and olive oil. Other rooms probably contained metals, textiles and dry foodstuffs like grain. Such remains show that the rulers who lived here had the power to collect tribute and to redistribute it to their allies and friends.
In many rooms of the palace at Knossos the walls are beautifully painted with scenes from Minoan life. Most are of people - beautiful young men in kilts and women in elegant, topless dresses. There are also scenes vividly depicting plant and animal life.
The palace suffered several phases of destruction, but it is not known for certain what caused any of these events, and the chronology is shaky. It has been suggested that the damage around 1500 BC might be related to earthquakes occurring between 1550 and 1500, when the great eruption of Thera occurred, but this is only a remote possibility. Since palace records after a destruction around 1450 BC are in Mycenaean Linear B script (see below), it has been suggested that Mycenaean invaders might have been responsible.
Minoan religion
Some wall paintings from Knossos and elsewhere seem to depict religious scenes, such as those of young men and women performing acrobatics over charging bulls. It has been suggested that the arena for these extraordinary games might have been the courtyard of the palace itself. Some of the women may be goddesses and some religious symbols are present, like the sign of the double axe or the bulls' horns.
The true complexity of Minoan religion is still beyond the reach of archaeologists. There are no Minoan `temples' as such, but there are a few shrines, one of which is in the basement of the palace at Knossos. Perhaps, given its underground location, it was dedicated to an earth deity. Some sites, like that of Aghia Triadha, seem to have had special religious significance.
The circular burial chamber at Mycenae, the principal late Bronze Age site on mainland Greece. The German archaeologist, Heinrich Schliemann, who first uncovered the treasures at the site in 1876, believed that he had found the city of Agamemnon, the Mycenaean king who led the Greek forces in the Trojan War. However, subsequent research has revealed that he had discovered the tombs of kings who reigned around 1600 BC, about 400 years before the commonly accepted date of the fall of Troy.
Minoans and Mycenaeans (2 of 4)
The Mycenaeans
The Mycenaeans, who replaced the Minoans as the dominant power in the Aegean from about 1450 BC, were based in citadel cities with great palaces throughout mainland Greece. The most important sites include Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, Gla and Athens. It is unlikely that any one king controlled the whole of Greece in this period, although some palaces are clearly much richer than others.
The earliest evidence of a powerful Mycenaean nobility comes from the shaft graves of Mycenae, which are arranged in two circles outside the city walls and which date from c. 1600 BC. The large amounts of gold and other metals deposited in them provide an awesome reminder of the wealth and strength of the city's rulers.
Mycenaean cities and palaces
The cities themselves were massively fortified, the walls made of huge, irregular blocks. The actual palaces were much simpler than in Crete, the most important feature being the megaron, a hall with a central hearth flanked by two columns.
From the records at Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes and other sites, we know that Mycenaean palaces, like those of the Minoans, were centers of political and economic control. These records were written on unbaked clay tablets in a script called Linear B, which is similar to Minoan Linear A, but the language is a form of Greek. It is clear from these records that the Mycenaean kings had control of vast amounts of land, full of flocks and crops, and worked on by great numbers of slaves. The palaces seem to have supervised the manufacture and trade of many crucial commodities, such as metals.
Like the Minoan palaces, Mycenaean palaces were full of treasures and works of art commissioned by the nobility. Walls were painted, but not usually so elaborately as in Crete. Many luxury items were imported from abroad, and Mycenaean pottery is found in Syria, Palestine, Egypt and elsewhere.
Minoan sculpture of an early harpist. Minoan art is particularly noted for its brightly colored frescos, as at the palace of Knossos, and pottery.
Minoans and Mycenaeans (3 of 4)
Mycenaean religion
The Linear B tablets reveal that the Mycenaeans worshipped many of the gods and goddesses familiar from later Greek religion. There were priests and priestesses who received offerings for the deities at their shrines. The remains of several Mycenaean shrines, with religious statues, have been found.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT TIMES
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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p368-4
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Minoans and Mycenaeans (page 4)
ftsTitle
Mycenaean gold head of a lion. The abundant and large gold artifacts found in Mycenaean royal burial grounds confirms the wealth and strength of the civilization.
Minoans and Mycenaeans (4 of 4)
The end of the Greek Bronze Age
Around 1200-1100 BC several of the palaces seem to have been destroyed, and it is still a mystery why such rich and powerful civilizations suddenly declined at this period. Many suggestions have been made, including internal dissent and revolution, climatic change, and foreign invaders - the Dorians - from the north. It is probable that the true reasons for their decline are complex, and possible that all the suggestions made are partially right in some way. It has been securely established now that at least some Mycenaeans settled on Cyprus at this time. Whatever the cause of Mycenaean decline, Greece at this time entered a `dark age' from which it did not emerge until the beginning of the Archaic period, in about 800 BC.
THE TROJAN WAR: FACT OR MYTH?
It has long been asked if the later Greek tradition of the Trojan War preserves memories of the glorious Mycenaean past and the destruction of Mycenaean civilization. It is certainly true that some elements of the Iliad and the Odyssey belong in the Bronze Age, although the poems - traditionally attributed to Homer - were probably written down in their final form around 750-700 BC.
It is difficult to relate these epics to the archaeological remains of Mycenaean civilization with any certainty. Clearly, there were Mycenaean contacts with Troy (probably the mound at modern Hissarlik in northwest Turkey). There is more Mycenaean pottery from this site than from any other site in Anatolia, but Mycenaean pottery still represents only a minute proportion of the total pottery found there. Perhaps the Homeric traditions contain genuine memories from the troubled times at the end of the Bronze Age. But if they do, it is impossible for historians to dissect the poetry to find the truth.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT TIMES
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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Archaic and Classical Greece (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Acropolis, Athens. Under Pericles, Athens used the profits of its empire on a spectacular public building program that saw the Acropolis decorated with buildings and sculptures, such as the Parthenon, the Propylaea and the great statues of Athena.................
Archaic and Classical Greece (1 of 3)
The typical unit of political and social organization in ancient Greece was the polis or independent city-state. City-states arose in many parts of the Greek-speaking world during the 8th century BC at the beginning of the so-called Archaic period (c. 800-500 BC). This development marked the end of a long period of poverty that had followed the collapse of Mycenaean civilization. The Archaic period was followed by the Classical period (c. 500-338 BC), during which the Greeks made radical experiments with political, artistic and philosophical ideas, all of which have had a lasting impact on Western civilization. The geography of Greece, with many small plains and valleys surrounded by high mountains, encouraged the formation of many small states. A city-state usually consisted of an agricultural territory (in which the vast majority of its citizens worked), and a walled town center. The individual identity of each city-state was reinforced by religious ties and a shared involvement in the making of political and legal decisions.
The Archaic city-state
Initially each city-state was dominated by a few noble families, although decisions might be put to assemblies of all citizens. However, from about 750 BC on this aristocratic dominance was progressively undermined. Firstly, the reintroduction of literacy into Greece (c. 750 BC) led to the public display of the laws, enabling citizens to question what had previously been under the strict control of the aristocrats. Secondly, from c. 750-600 BC, many new Greek city-states were established around the Aegean, Adriatic and Black Seas. The setting up of new cities, with new laws and a fresh distribution of land, also encouraged questioning of the distribution of power and wealth at home. Thirdly, the introduction of hoplite armor and tactics gave the ordinary people a greater potential power.
A consequence was that new laws began to restrict the power of the nobles. In a number of cities government by hereditary nobles was replaced by the rule of a tyrant, a usurper who seized power with the support of the hoplites. As a result of such upheavals, in many city-states power was held by a small group (an oligarchy), defined by wealth rather than by birth, although important issues might still be put to the citizens.
Archaic Sparta
During the Archaic period, two city-states, Sparta and Athens, became particularly important. They developed in very different ways. In the 8th century the Spartans gained control of most of the southern Peloponnese (the large peninsula in southern Greece), and the majority of the defeated peoples became `state serfs' (helots).
In the mid-7th century BC a major helot revolt occurred, and at about the same time Spartan citizens, now organized in a hoplite army, successfully agitated for reforms. The citizens won more political rights and more equal shares of land, but socially Sparta was transformed into a tightly regimented and authoritarian state. Its citizens were subjected to a rigorous training program from the age of 7 onwards.
During the 6th century BC the reformed and strengthened Sparta, through military and diplomatic means, created the `Peloponnesian League', a network of alliances throughout the Peloponnese, and became the most powerful state in Greece.
Archaic Athens
The first steps towards democracy in Athens were made by Solon (?638-?559 BC), who was appointed in 594 to create new laws after a period of serious unrest between rich and poor. Solon did much to establish the peasants in ownership of their lands, and encouraged all citizens to participate in the assembly and in legal processes. He introduced a division of all citizens based on wealth, but restricted the various offices to the better-off classes.
Political discontent continued, and the leader of the poorer peasants, Peisisratos, established himself as tyrant. He and his sons ruled Athens from about 545 to 510 BC. Like Solon, they helped to secure the peasants on their lands, but the regime became unpopular and cruel in its later years.
In 507 BC new reforms proposed by Cleisthenes (d. 508 BC) created more democratic means of decision-making at local and at city level, including the new `Council of Five Hundred', selected from representatives of local areas. The Council prepared business for the assembly and performed an increasing number of administrative activities. In order to prevent tyranny and to resolve disputes Cleisthenes introduced the institution of ostracism, whereby Athenians could vote for a politician to be banished from the city for 10 years. Helped by these reforms Athens also became a more effective military power.
power.
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT
* THE EVOLUTION OF PHILOSOPHY
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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p370-2
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Archaic and Classical Greece (page 2)
ftsTitle
A line of marble lions on the Greek island of Delos, a major port and cult center in Archaic Greece. In 478 BC the Delian Confederacy was established there under the leadership of Athens, but at the end of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta briefly gave Delos its independence.
Archaic and Classical Greece (2 of 3)
The Persian Wars
The growing power of the Persian Empire had led by c. 500 BC to its dominance over the Greek cities of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Athenian support for an unsuccessful revolt against Persian rule by these cities (500-494 BC) led in 490 BC to the first invasion by the Persians of the Greek mainland. This was repulsed by the Athenians in the land battle at Marathon.
A much more serious invasion followed in 480 BC, under the new Persian king, Xerxes (ruled 485-465). An anti-Persian alliance was formed under the leadership of Sparta, which provided the most powerful infantry, while the largest fleet belonged to Athens. After the initial heroic defeat at Thermopylae, the combined Greek forces defeated the Persians at sea at Salamis (480), and on land the next year at Plataea. These victories confirmed Sparta and Athens as the two major Greek powers. One Athenian, Themistocles (c. 528-462 BC), seems to have been the main driving force behind the development of the Athenian navy and the strategy adopted in 480-479 BC.
Athenian empire and Athenian democracy
The Greek fleet pursued the Persians across the Aegean and `liberated' the Greek cities from Persian rule. In 478 BC Athens assumed leadership of a new alliance, the Delian League, and by c. 450 BC active fighting ceased.
Meanwhile the League was increasingly dominated by Athens, to whom the members were forced to pay tribute. Athenian interference in the politics and economies of its allies grew, to Athens' own advantage and also that of the poorer allied citizens. By the 440s the League could more appropriately be described as an Athenian empire.
During this period Athens completed the development of its democracy. The popular juries heard all law suits except homicide, and the scrutiny of all office-holders and their conduct was shared between the Council of Five Hundred, the assembly, and the juries.
From 462 BC until his death the statesman and orator Pericles (c. 495-429 BC) took an increasingly major part in developing Athenian policies, and at this time Athens was at its most prosperous, successful and powerful. But its use of power did not lead to the unity of Greece: many in its empire resented Athenian control, and the rival Peloponnesian League remained fearful of its growing power.
The Peloponnesian War
The immediate origins of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) lay in areas such as Corinth where the interests of Athens and the Peloponnesians overlapped. In 431 BC the complaints of the Athenian allies, and the refusal of Athens to compromise, led the Spartans to declare war. The fundamental reason, perhaps, was Spartan fear of losing control over its own allies in the Peloponnese.
Sparta was strong on land and Athens strong at sea, and for long each avoided a decisive battle. Since one side tended to support democracies and the other oligarchies, and each tried to win over the other's allies, the war greatly intensified the political and economic struggles inside many Greek cities. In Athens itself after the death of Pericles, a more populist set of politicians appeared, and as each vied for power, political and social tensions increased.
A temporary peace was made in 421 BC, but in 415 Athens made the serious mistake of attempting to conquer Sicily, which appealed for Spartan help. Athens' most inspired leader, Alcibiades (c. 450-404 BC), was implicated in religious scandals and fled to Sparta, giving the Spartans useful strategic advice. In 414 Sparta came to the help of the Sicilians, and the Athenian fleet was destroyed in 413.
What was decisive in the long run was that the Persians increasingly contributed to the expenses of the Spartan fleet. Inside Athens, the democracy took much of the blame for the defeat in Sicily, and in 411 there was a brief period of non-democratic rule. Despite all these difficulties - and further mistakes - Athens fought on until its final defeat at sea in 404 BC. Thus the great war ended in complete victory for Sparta. However, most of the Greek cities, although liberated from Athenian `tyranny', found themselves either ruled once more by the Persians, or by narrow, Spartan-backed oligarchies.
In Athens defeat was followed by the brief and savage rule of an oligarchy, the `Thirty Tyrants' (404-403 BC). When this was overthrown, the restored democracy won credit by declaring an amnesty for all except the chief oligarchs. But the execution of the philosopher Socrates on charges of corrupting the young and of impiety did lasting damage to Athens' reputation. He was used as a scapegoat, and blamed for his association with young men such as Alcibiades.
Greek vase painting of a discus thrower. Athletic competitions and the cult of the well-trained and healthy body were an important part of Greek social life. Gymnasiums and stadiums were popular meeting places for men. The Olympic Games started in Greece in 776 BC.
Archaic and Classical Greece (3 of 3)
The emergence of Macedon
The Athenian defeat did not bring peace. The harsh policies of Sparta, and the reversal of its former policies by attacking Persian rule in Asia Minor, led to a coalition against it. This consisted of its former allies, Corinth and Thebes, and its old enemies Athens and Argos, supported by Persian gold. A succession of wars continued until the middle of the century, with Thebes, as the leader of the Boeotian Confederacy, achieving major military successes over Sparta. Sparta failed to recover, largely owing to the gradual breakdown of its economic and social system. Athens did recover some of its former power, and from 378/7 created a new Aegean Confederacy. However, this was only a shadow of its former empire.
The main Greek states thus became weaker, a weakness often exacerbated by civil war. Into this power vacuum came Macedon, a previously backward kingdom in northeast Greece. In 359 BC Philip II became king of Macedon, and immediately undertook a total reorganization of the army and the kingdom. He went on by a combination of diplomacy and force to achieve a position of dominance in mainland Greece, achieving final victory at the battle of Chaironea (338). Philip was assassinated in 336, leaving his son Alexander to carry out his plan to invade Persia. Although the Greek city-states were to maintain a degree of self-government for centuries, from now on power in Greece was to depend ultimately on outsiders.
* MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS
* ALEXANDER THE GREAT
* THE EVOLUTION OF PHILOSOPHY
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
Encyclopedia
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p372-1
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Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic World (page 1)
ftsTitle
Alexander the Great, one of the greatest generals in history. Although ruthless, he inspired great loyalty in his men. After consulting the oracle of Amon at Siwah Oasis in Egypt (332-331 BC) his belief in his own divine descent became more pronounced.
Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age (1 of 3)
The conquests of Alexander the Great brought the whole of the former Persian Empire under the control of Greek-speaking rulers. The monarchies that were established after his death enabled Greek culture to penetrate through Syria, Mesopotamia and Iran to India. The Hellenistic Age (from the Greek Hellenistes, `an imitator of the Greeks') is the period from Alexander's death (323 BC) until the gradual extinction of these kingdoms, most of which were absorbed by the Roman or Parthian Empires in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.
Alexander was born in the summer of 356 BC, eldest son of Philip II, king of Macedon (359-336 BC). Alexander was educated by - among others - the philosopher Aristotle, and acquired all the skills needed by a future ruler. When Philip won complete control over the Greek city-states at the battle of Chaironeia in 338 BC, Alexander commanded the Macedonian army's victorious left wing. On the assassination of Philip in 336 BC he was immediately proclaimed king. Some of the states subject to Macedon tried to take advantage of the new king, but he crushed the uprisings. A series of swift and brutal campaigns in Thrace and Greece culminated in the defeat of the Thebans and the destruction of their city in 335 BC.
The conquest of the Persian Empire
Having secured his position in Europe, Alexander was able to continue the Greek offensive against the Persian Empire. This had been initiated by his father and was explicitly portrayed as revenge for the desecrations of Xerxes and liberation for the Greeks of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). In practice this meant replacing Persian rule with Macedonian rule by right of conquest.
Alexander crossed into Asia Minor in 334 BC with an army of 32 000 infantry and 5000 cavalry. He engaged the massed forces of the western Persian provinces at the River Granikos and defeated them. He proceeded through Asia Minor, entering some cities as a welcome deliverer and others as a resisted conqueror. When he came to the edge of Asia proper he was faced by a larger Persian army commanded by Darius III himself, the Achaemenid king of Persia (336-330 BC). At the Battle of Issos in 333 BC Alexander won a brilliant victory, personally leading his cavalry into the heart of the battle. Darius fled, leaving his family to be captured, while Alexander entered Egypt and was accepted as its new ruler by the Egyptian priests.
A final stand by Darius ended in total defeat at Gaugamela in 332 BC. The fleeing king was eventually murdered by his own nobles, only hours before Alexander caught up with him. Alexander became his successor, although it took a great deal more campaigning before Alexander had subdued all of the Persian Empire. He led his army across Asia to the edge of the Himalaya and the northern provinces of India. As he progressed further away from Greece he began to use Persian soldiers and appoint Persian nobles to positions of authority, much to the dismay of the Macedonians. After a mutiny by his tired army in 324 BC he turned back towards the west, only getting as far as Babylon, where he fell ill and died in 323 BC.
In ten years Alexander had created the largest empire that the world had ever known, stretching from the Greek mainland to the River Indus, incorporating all or part of 17 modern states. His outstandingly successful career made him the ideal king, against whom all others were judged and whose deeds all tried to emulate. Just before his death he may have planned further campaigns against the powerful states of the western Mediterranean - after his conquest of the Persian Empire anything was possible.
The successors of Alexander
There was no clear rule of succession for Macedonian kings. Alexander's wife Roxane was pregnant when he died and a regent was appointed. Both the child and his mother were murdered in the disputes that followed. The leading Macedonian generals immediately fought amongst themselves over who should govern the various parts of the empire and several tried to set themselves up as kings. Three main dynasties were eventually established - by Ptolemy (Egypt), Seleucos (Asia) and Antigonos (Macedon and Greece). Smaller vassal kingdoms and city-states existed within their territories, especially in parts where their authority was weakest. In time some of these became more powerful and achieved independence from the main dynasties.
In Macedon the kingship was to a limited degree elective - the king was approved by his subjects, especially the army, and he ruled by consent. The Antigonids retained this idea, so that their monarchy closely resembled that of Philip II and Alexander, before the conquest of Persia. In Egypt and Asia, however, native concepts of absolute monarchy and the divine nature of the king's authority produced monarchies more like those of the pharaohs and the Achaemenids. The Seleucids and the Ptolemies were worshipped as gods, supposedly descended from Apollo and Dionysos or their local equivalents. Divine nature was also attributed to their families. All over the Hellenistic world Alexander was honored as a god, from whom all kings claimed descent.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE RISE OF ROME
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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p372-2
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Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age (2 of 3)
Kingdoms and cities
The nature of the Hellenistic kingdoms varied greatly. The Antigonids ruled Macedon securely, but their control over central and southern Greece was not always so firm. Two federations of city-states, Aitolia and Achaia, were dominant from c. 240 BC onwards. The Ptolemaic kingdom was limited to Egypt and some coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean. It had the most effective navy and the least rebellious population. The Seleucid kingdom included many peoples spread over a huge area. Much of their original territory fragmented into ethnic kingdoms, such as Bactria, Armenia, Bithynia and Pontus. Those areas that they did retain were controlled like the Achaemenid Empire by local governors (satraps).
The basic social and political unit of the Hellenistic world was the city, made up of an urban center and surrounding countryside. Alexander founded many cities bearing his name as part of the process of spreading Greek culture and ideas throughout his empire. He even named one city after his horse, Bucephalus. Some of these cities, like Alexandria in Egypt, have endured to the present day. His successors copied this idea (e.g. Antiochia, Seleucia). Cities were centers of wealth and power, to be controlled and exploited. Many were free to administer their own affairs and to behave almost as independent states, although this could lead to rebellion.
Eumenes, the governor of Pergamon, transformed the city from a Seleucid fortress and treasury into an independent state. In 238 BC his son Attalos I became a king. The territory of Pergamon was small, but favorable circumstances and location enabled it to develop into one of the most prosperous and beautiful of all the Hellenistic cities.
The competitive spirit
The Hellenistic Age was marked by a highly competitive spirit affecting individuals at all levels of society. Kings were rivals on a grand scale in war and politics. They fought each other for the control of people and places, sometimes with force, sometimes diplomacy. Vassals and cities competed for a monarch's favor and protection.
Citizens tried to amass larger fortunes than their fellows through agriculture and trade. They showed off their riches by financing splendid buildings or festivals for their cities, and were rewarded with extravagant honors and titles. Most public works were paid for by private wealth, and official posts were occupied by men, and occasionally women, who could afford to be generous. Wealth determined how easy or hard life was. If a person was captured by the ubiquitous pirates, for example, whether they were sold into slavery or ransomed depended on how rich they or their patrons were.
The decline of the Hellenistic world
Competition was not always beneficial. The Hellenistic monarchies weakened each other through constant wars, and fell victim to outsiders. Macedon was conquered by the Romans in 167 BC, and Greece became a Roman province in 146 BC. Attalos III of Pergamon bequeathed his kingdom to Rome in 133 BC to avoid further internal strife. The Seleucid family quarreled over an ever-shrinking kingdom as the provinces rebelled under local leaders, overthrowing Greek rule in favor of native rulers. Egypt was the longest lived of the Hellenistic kingdoms, thanks largely to the speed with which Macedonian rule was assimilated into the traditional pattern of Egyptian monarchy. It was at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC that the Hellenistic Age came to a close, with the defeat of Cleopatra VII, last of the Hellenistic monarchs.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
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* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic World (page 2)
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p372-3
HELLENISTIC ARMIES
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Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age (3 of 3)
HELLENISTIC ARMIES
All the Hellenistic kings were generals first and rulers second. It was possible to be a king without a kingdom, but not without an army. Wars were fought for booty and prestige as much as for territory. The basic infantry unity of Hellenistic armies was the phalanx, 1000 or more men standing close together in lines 16 deep. They were armed with a sword, a shield and a spear, the sarissa, about 4 m (13 ft) long. The spear points of the first five rows made an impenetrable barrier ahead and the others held their spears overhead to ward off missiles. Cavalrymen in squadrons of 200 protected the wings. Both Philip II and Alexander used the strong but unwieldy phalanx to engage the enemy and break up his line. The cavalry would then charge on the flanks and win the battle. Later monarchs employed elephants for a shock effect. The early phalanx was composed of Macedonian peasant soldiers. In the second and first centuries BC mercenaries from all over the Hellenistic world served together in the armies of the various monarchs.
* THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE RISE OF ROME
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic World (page 3)
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The Celts (page 1)
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A Celtic cult wagon from Germany, 1st century BC.
The Celts (1 of 2)
Prehistoric Europe was populated by a large number of different groups. Most of them are quite obscure to us now, but the way of life of those societies, located on the fringe of literate Mediterranean cultures, may be reconstructed in some detail. Best known of all are the late Iron Age inhabitants of present-day France and Britain and their neighbors.
Archaeologists have no way of knowing either the languages spoken by most of these peoples or even their own names for themselves. Greek explorers and Roman conquerors referred to them all as Gauls or Celts, and more recently the term Celtic has been applied to a group of languages. But it is a modern (and mistaken) idea that the Celts were a single people with a common language and a common culture, who shared a history extending from prehistory to the present day.
Europe in the first millennium BC
Temperate Europe is a land of rolling hills and wide plains and plateau. Most of this landscape was covered in woodland until a few thousand years ago, when groups of settled farmers began to clear large areas for cultivation. With the discovery of iron technology, the rate of clearance accelerated. Marshes were drained, hillsides were deforested and the fertile river valleys supported dense populations long before the Roman invasions.
Iron Age agricultural systems were fairly sophisticated. Most areas depended on a variety of grains - emmer, spelt, barley and millet being the most important. Stock breeding was also used to develop valued traits in cattle, pigs and sheep. Regional specialties developed - cattle in the Low Countries for example - but most communities were probably self-sufficient in basic foodstuffs.
Most of the population lived in villages. The traces of scattered farmsteads are found in some regions, and at some periods massive fortifications were constructed - the hillforts that still dominate the landscape of many parts of the countryside. But we cannot be sure that all these fortifications were permanently inhabited, and, except in mountainous areas like northern Scotland or the Alps, hillforts were only built and used for brief periods of prehistory.
Iron Age society was village based. Most people were peasant farmers who lived with their relatives near to the land they farmed. Villages may have had headmen, but kinship was probably equally important in organizing daily life.
By the time the Romans invaded, many areas were also organized into larger political units. Hereditary nobles owned much of the land, and dominated society with their bands of followers. Noble society was violent - young men won praise and wealth by raids, duels and in war. Iron Age groups were probably no more warlike than any other ancient society, but they have acquired a reputation for ferocity both from the accounts of Roman generals who fought them and from the splendid weaponry of the nobility.
Material culture and art
Archaeology allows us to reconstruct a detailed picture of everyday life in late prehistoric Europe. Houses were built of wood and wickerwork and coated in mud to weatherproof them. Food was stored, cooked and served in pottery vessels, most of them coarse by modern standards but some brightly painted or covered in a shimmering coat of graphite. Bone was used to make needles, and clothes were woven on looms from flax and wool.
But it is the metalwork of prehistoric Europe that has most excited the admiration of recent generations. Weapons, ornaments and drinking equipment show a high degree of metallurgical proficiency. A great quantity of iron was produced: the largest hillfort ramparts used hundreds of tons merely for nails to hold together wooden timbers. The quality of ironworking was also very high: some late Iron Age swords will still spring back when bent.
Gold and silver were used to make necklaces (torques) and brooches decorated with stylized artwork. Animals and religious motifs combine with graceful curves and elaborate decoration to form wonderfully balanced overall designs. The interests of the nobility are graphically illustrated by the beautiful weapons and drinking equipment with which they were buried or which they threw into rivers as offerings to the gods.
Art historians have identified two widely used styles, now known after the sites at which they were first observed. Hallstatt art (named after an Austrian village), which flourished between 900 and 500 BC, originated in central Europe and spread widely on the continent. La Tene art (named after a part of Lake Neuchatel, Switzerland) developed around 450 BC under the influence of civilizations of the south and east. The style first appears in the Rhineland, but spread even further than Hallstatt art, reaching Ireland and Spain in the west and Hungary in the east.
The invasion hypothesis
Archaeologists used to imagine that particular styles of material culture (tools, weapons, pots, etc.) corresponded to particular peoples, with distinctive beliefs, languages, customs and identities. They believed that movements of peoples could be traced through the archaeological records by looking for key artifacts. This theory is known as the invasion hypothesis.
So the spread of Hallstatt and La Tne styles and artifacts used to be interpreted as migrations of Hallstatt people or La Tne warrior bands. One or both groups were thought to be the ancestors of `the Celts'. The case seemed to be proved by Greek and Latin accounts of `barbarian invasions'.
Modern archaeology and anthropology have shown that the relationship between material culture and particular peoples is more complex. Firstly, the same kind of material culture is often used by individuals who think of themselves as belonging to quite different groups. Secondly, the whole idea of fixed `peoples' is now seen to derive from those ideas of race developed during the 1930s and long discredited in most parts of the world.
Most anthropologists prefer to talk of ethnicity, the sense of identity created for itself by a group in a particular time and place. Ethnicity, unlike race, is culturally defined and changes over time, just as individuals can change their ethnicity by becoming part of another group.
No doubt there were population movements in prehistoric Europe (although they may be invisible to archaeologists) but ethnicities must have been continually forming and breaking up and reforming just as they do today.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* THE INVASIONS
* THE PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT TIMES
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
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The Celts (page 2)
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Detail from the Gundestrup Cauldron. This masterpiece of Iron Age metalwork dates from around 100 BC.
The Celts (2 of 2)
What happened to the Celts?
Who are today's Celts? After the Roman conquest of much of Europe, Iron Age cultures fed into the Romanized culture of the empire. Local traditions remained but the overwhelming influence was Mediterranean.
Celts appear again on the fringes of the Roman world after the fall of the empire. Modern scholars use the term to refer to the early medieval groups who inhabited present-day Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Cornwall and Brittany. Many contemporary inhabitants of these areas now think of themselves as 'Celtic' - that is they have adopted a Celtic 'ethnicity'.
The creation of the modern Celts has to be seen in the context of the rise of nationalism in the 19th century. All over Europe, disadvantaged minorities adopted new ethnicities, often based on linguistic divisions. In fact, no Classical writers ever speak of Celts in Ireland. But the myth of the Celts has become a powerful symbol in the struggle of many groups for autonomy and independence from the larger political units in which they are embedded.
* HUMAN PREHISTORY
* THE INVASIONS
* THE PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT TIMES
* THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES
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The Rise of Rome (page 1)
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A Roman bust of Julius Caesar. On coming to power in44 BC, Caesar took the title 'Dictator for Life', and allowed himself to be paid extravagant honors. This suggested that he was aiming for regal and even divine status, which went against the Republican tradition and led to his murder by a group of senators.
The Rise of Rome (1 of 3)
The beginnings of Rome are lost in legend. According to the story, the city took its name from Romulus, a shepherd king who founded a settlement on the banks of the Tiber after killing his twin brother Remus, traditionally in 753 BC.
Romulus was the first of seven kings of Rome, the last of whom, Tarquin the Proud, was expelled in 509 BC when a republic was set up.
It is difficult to know how much truth there is in the legends of early Rome. Archaeologists have established that one or more villages existed on the site from the end of the Bronze Age (c. 1000 BC), and that by 600 BC the settlement had developed into a substantial city.
At the time of the overthrow of Tarquin, Rome possessed an extensive territory, a strong army and a wide network of commercial and diplomatic contacts, not only with other Latin-speaking towns, which it dominated, but with the powerful Etruscan states to the north, the Greek colonies in the south, and even with distant Carthage, a Phoenician trading city on the North African coast.
The early Republic
Under the Republic, established in 509 BC, power was exercised by two annually elected consuls, who ruled the city and commanded the army. They were advised by a council of elders (the Senate), and in the course of time were assisted by more junior officials, who were also elected annually. Only in emergencies was a single dictator appointed, for a maximum of six months.
At first these posts were held almost exclusively by the patricians, a hereditary elite of obscure origin. But in the 4th century BC other wealthy citizens, representing the rest of the population (the plebeians), also obtained access to high office. The plebeians had formed their own assembly and elected their own officials, called tribunes, to represent them. In 287 BC the plebeians obtained the right to pass laws in their assemblies, and at this point the struggle between the patricians and plebeians was finally ended.
In the 4th century BC, after a temporary setback in 390 when the city was sacked by Gallic raiders from northern Italy, the Romans gradually expanded their power. The neighboring peoples whom they conquered were obliged to become allies and to fight alongside them in subsequent wars. Part of the land they conquered was colonized by the poor (allies as well as Romans), while the rest was left to its original owners, who were enrolled as allies and invited to share in future conquests. By 272 BC the conquest of peninsular Italy was complete.
Shortly afterwards the Romans became involved in a major overseas war, when in 264 BC they challenged the Carthaginians for the control of Sicily. In spite of immense losses the Romans eventually emerged as victors in 241 BC in what is known as the First Punic War (from Punicus, `Carthaginian'), and Sicily became the first Roman province. The Second Punic War began in 218 when the Carthaginian general Hannibal (247-c. 183 BC) sought revenge by crossing the Alps and invading Italy with an army of 26 000 men and several war elephants. In spite of spectacular victories at Trasimene and Cannae, Hannibal failed to win over Rome's Italian allies and was gradually worn down by the tactics of Quintus Fabius Maximus (d. 203 BC). Hannibal withdrew from Italy in 204 BC and was finally defeated in 202 at Zama in Africa by Scipio Africanus (236-183 BC).
As a result the Romans obtained further provinces from the former Carthaginian possessions in Spain, and in the following decades the Romans decisively defeated the major Hellenistic kingdoms in Greece and Asia Minor, and by 167 BC Rome dominated the whole Mediterranean. After the Third Punic War (149-146 BC) Carthage was destroyed and `Africa' (i.e. roughly modern Tunisia) became a Roman province. Greece was made a province at the same time; Asia (i.e. western Turkey) followed in 133, and then Southern Gaul (Provence) in 121, Cilicia (southern Turkey) in 101, and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya) in 96.
The consequences of Roman imperialism
These overseas successes vastly increased the power and wealth of the upper classes, who hastened to invest their gains in large landed estates, worked by war captives imported as slaves. Slave labor replaced the small peasant proprietors, who formed the backbone of the Roman army but found that prolonged military service in distant lands made it increasingly difficult to maintain their farms. Many peasants were thus driven off their land to a life of penury and unemployment. One result of this was a problem in military recruitment, since the law laid down a property qualification for service in the army. Social tensions thus began to build up, and the earlier consensus came under increasing strain.
Meanwhile the rich began to adopt luxurious and increasingly sophisticated habits. The influence of Greek culture became pervasive, as Romans began to imitate the leisured style of the great centers of the Hellenistic world.
The breakdown of the Republic
The widening gulf between rich and poor eventually gave rise to social conflict and political breakdown. In 133 BC a tribune, Tiberius Gracchus (163-133), introduced a land reform that proposed to redistribute among the poor the state-owned land that had been annexed by the rich. There was immense opposition, and Gracchus was murdered in a furious outbreak of political violence. Ten years later, his brother, Gaius (153-121), attempted to bring in a series of popular reforms, and suffered the same fate.
In the following generation Rome faced hostile military threats in every part of the Empire, including a serious revolt by the Italian allies (91-88). The ruling oligarchy showed itself corrupt and in-competent in attempting to respond to these crises, which were only overcome by allowing able and ambitious individuals to take control of the government, and by creating a professional army from the proletariat.
These measures solved the military problems, but had fatal political consequences, because they provided the poor with a means to redress their grievances, and ambitious nobles with the chance to gain personal power by means of armed force. The first civil war was between the successful generals Gaius Marius (c. 157-86) and Lucius Sulla (c. 138-78). Both men marched against the city and massacred their political opponents, and in 81 Sulla set himself up as dictator. His attempts to reform the political system were ineffectual, however, and the same lethal trends continued.
continued.
* ALEXANDER AND THE HELLENISTIC WORLD
* THE ROMAN EMPIRE
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT TIMES
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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The Rise of Rome (page 2)
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The Rise of Rome (page 3)
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An Etruscan couple on a sarcophagus from the 7th century BC.
The Rise of Rome (3 of 3)
A fresh series of military crises in the 70s enabled the popular general Pompey (Gnaeus Pompeius, 106-48) to gain a position of pre-eminence in the state. But he was unable to prevent other leaders from doing the same thing, and in 60 he joined Marcus Crassus (c. 115-53) and Julius Caesar (100-44) in the First Triumvirate. Following his conquest of Gaul (modern France) Caesar invaded Italy and once again plunged the Empire into civil war. After defeating Pompey at Pharsalus in 48 Caesar became consul and dictator for life.
Caesar's monarchical tendencies went against republican tradition and offended the nobles. On 15 March (the `Ides of March') 44 BC, he was stabbed to death by a group of senators led by Marcus Junius Brutus (?85-42) and Gaius Cassius Longinus (d. 42). The conspirators were unable to restore the Republic, however, because Caesar's chief aides, Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius, 83-31) and Marcus Lepidus (c. 89-12), had the support of his armies. In 43 Mark Antony and Lepidus joined together with Caesar's heir, the 19-year-old Caesar Octavian (the future Augustus, 63 BC-AD 14), to form the Second Triumvirate, and in the following year Brutus and Cassius were defeated at Philippi in Macedonia, and committed suicide. Lepidus was soon squeezed out of the Triumvirate, and the Empire was uneasily divided between Octavian and Antony until 31 BC, when the issue was decided in Octavian's favor at the Battle of Actium, off the west coast of Greece. Mark Antony and his mistress, the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, committed suicide, leaving Octavian in complete control of the Roman Empire.
THE ETRUSCANS
The Etruscans, whose civilization flourished from the 8th century BC, lived in the region of central Italy between the Tiber and the Arno. Scholars are uncertain whether they were an indigenous people or immigrants, but are agreed that the Etruscan civilization took shape in Italy - albeit under strong external influences, particularly from the Greeks. In the 6th century BC Etruria was divided into fiercely independent city-states. To begin with these rivaled Rome, but in the 4th and 3rd centuries they were gradually conquered and subsequently `Romanized'.
The Etruscan cities are known to us mainly from their material remains, particularly their cemeteries. Tombs decorated with wall paintings and sculptures tell us much about Etruscan religion, society and daily life. Archaeology remains the chief source of information because the Etruscan language, though surviving in thousands of mainly short inscriptions, is still poorly understood.
* ALEXANDER AND THE HELLENISTIC WORLD
* THE ROMAN EMPIRE
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT TIMES
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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The Roman Empire (page 1)
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Augustus (63 BC-AD 14), the first Roman Emperor, whose strong rule ended a long period of civil wars. Statues of Augustus were set up all over the Empire, in many parts of which he came to be worshipped as a god.
The Roman Empire (1 of 4)
After his victory at Actium Octavian was faced with the problem of retaining the loyalty of the army while at the same time establishing a position of permanent power that would be acceptable to traditional opinion. Octavian's great achievement was to find a lasting solution to this problem. The name Augustus (meaning `revered') was an honorary title conferred on him in 27 BC, when his position was formalized by the grant of special powers by the Senate and people. He later took on other powers, but made sure that they were voted to him, so as not to offend republican sentiment. The Senate effectively became a branch of the administration and lost all political independence. The resentment caused by this loss of power was never entirely eliminated, and was the source of much political conflict during the century that followed.
The work of Augustus
In general, however, the new regime was welcomed by the upper classes, since it brought peace, stability and a chance to prosper. In the provinces, which had suffered dreadfully from civil war, Augustus was hailed as a savior and universal benefactor. Throughout the Empire formal cults of the emperor were established and became a focus for the loyalty of his subjects.
Augustus received the enthusiastic support of the people of Rome with free rations of grain, cash hand-outs, games and shows (`bread and circuses'). He also secured the loyalty of the army by settling veterans in colonies in the provinces and establishing a permanent standing force, with fixed terms of service and regular wages. This reform had the effect of taking the army out of politics, and guaranteeing its loyalty to the state.
Under Augustus the army was kept busy in wars of conquest. Northwest Spain, the Alpine regions and the Balkans were overrun by Augustus' generals, although the plan to extend Roman rule in Germany east of the Rhine had to be abandoned after the annihilation of three legions under Varus in the Teutoburger forest in AD
Victories abroad and peace at home were the hallmarks of Augustus' long reign. Agriculture and trade benefited, city life prospered, and literature and the arts flourished in what came to be regarded as Rome's `Golden Age'. On the negative side, political debate was suppressed and freedom of thought was discouraged. This trend intensified under Augustus' successors, with sinister results.
The imperial succession
Augustus was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius, whose long and peaceful reign (AD 14-37) was marred by conflicts with the Senate, treason trials, and palace conspiracies. These tendencies became more pronounced under the later rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty: the insane Caligula (37-41), the feeble and pedantic Claudius (41-54), and the colorful but vicious Nero (54-68).
Nero's suicide left the throne with no legitimate heir, and opened the way to civil war as the various provincial armies backed the claims of their generals. The chaos was finally ended by Vespasian, the commander of the eastern legions, who fought his way to power in late 69 and established the Flavian dynasty. This too became a reign of terror under Domitian (81-96), who was eventually murdered.
The Senate replaced him with the weak and ineffectual Nerva (96-98), who only averted the possibility of renewed civil war by adopting a popular general, Trajan, as his successor. Trajan (98-117) was a successful military ruler who also won over the Senate, which regarded him as an ideal emperor. The atmosphere of stability and concord continued under Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (161-180). Each of these beneficent rulers was adopted by his predecessor in the absence of a natural heir; the sequence broken by Marcus' son Commodus (180-192), who turned out to be a maniac, thus confirming the Senate's worst suspicions of dynastic succession.
The assassination of Commodus ushered in a period of turmoil which resembled the events of 68-69, and from which Septimius Severus emerged as the final victor. Severus' reign (193-211) was a naked military despotism, and the army became politically dominant under his successors. When Alexander Severus was murdered by his soldiers in 235, the Severan dynasty came to an end and the Empire lapsed into anarchy.
The villa of the Emperor Hadrian at Tivoli, near Rome, gives some idea of the luxury and elegance of life for wealthy Romans. Built in the early 2nd century AD, the villa complex and its gardens cover some 18 km2 (7 sq mi). As well as the villa itself, there were theaters, pavilions, baths and libraries.
The Roman Empire (2 of 4)
State and subject
The Roman Empire embraced the territory of some 25 modern countries, and had a population of over 50 million people. Nevertheless its administrative organization was rudimentary. The Pax Romana (`Roman Peace') was maintained in spite of - or perhaps rather because of - the inertia of the central government. The state made only a minimal impact on the daily lives of its subjects. The emperor, who worked with a tiny secretarial staff of domestic slaves and freedmen, delegated his authority to the provincial governors and lesser administrators called procurators, none of whom had any significant clerical staff to assist them. There was no bureaucracy or civil service.
The Empire functioned thanks to the active cooperation of its subjects, who largely governed themselves. The provinces formed a patchwork of self-governing cities, each with its surrounding territory, whose local elite was responsible for day-to-day administration and collection of taxes. Each city was a miniature version of Rome, with its own senate and annual office holders, elected from the wealthiest citizens. These men attained status and prestige by spending lavishly from their own fortunes on public amenities, charities, and festivals. The civic spirit shown by this local munificence is a key feature of Roman civilization.
man civilization.
* THE RISE OF ROME
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT TIMES
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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The Roman Empire (page 3)
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Roman soldiers with helmet, sword and shield.
The Roman Empire (3 of 4)
THE ROMAN ARMY AND FRONTIERS
By the late Republic the Roman army had become a fully professional fighting force, noted for its tactical skills and ruthless discipline. Augustus made it into a regular standing army, permanently stationed in the outlying provinces of the Empire. It numbered some 300000 men in all, divided roughly half and half between the legions (units of c. 5000 men), recruited from Roman citizens, and 'auxiliaries', soldiers of provincial origin who received Roman citizenship as a reward after 25 years of service.
Conquest was still the army's principal task under Augustus, but under his successors it was organized for defence behind fixed frontiers. Even so, it still retained its potential as a fearsome instrument in the field, for example during the conquest of Dacia (modern Romania) in ad 101-106.
Under the Flavian and Antonine emperors the frontiers began to be marked by permanent fortifications, the most famous of which is Hadrian's Wall, constructed in ad 122. The wall stretched across northern England for 130 km (80 mi) from the Tyne to the Solway. Its precise strategic function is still not properly understood, but many experts believe that it was designed to separate and control turbulent populations on both sides of the wall, rather than to withstand full-scale invasions from outside the province.
province.
* THE RISE OF ROME
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT TIMES
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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The Roman Empire (page 4)
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The Colosseum in Rome, built ad 72-80, was one of the main sites for gladiatorial combats. Up to 45000 spectators, arranged by class, were seated at the amphitheatre, to watch the gladiators - usually prisoners of war, slaves or condemned prisoners - fight each other or wild beasts.
The Roman Empire (4 of 4)
ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Although trade and manufacture reached significant levels in the Roman Empire, growth was hindered by backward technology, low investment and poor demand. Agriculture was always the most important sector of the economy, and engaged most of the population. Land was the chief focus of investment, and the most respectable form of wealth. There was no significant class of businessmen or entrepreneurs.
Society was sharply divided between the rich landowners and the mass of rural peasants and urban poor, who were heavily dependent on the patronage of the well-to-do. Finally, there were the slaves.
In the cities slaves were used largely as domestic staff in the houses of the rich; but slave labour was also used in quarries and mines, where conditions of work were inhuman, and sometimes
in the fields, although the large-scale use of agricultural slavery was probably not common outside Italy. The Romans
regularly freed their slaves, who thereby obtained Roman citizenship, a
considerable privilege. Many of them prospered, and well-off freedmen became an important social group.
A notable feature of Roman society was its uniformity and ease of movement. People could travel without a passport from York to Alexandria, or from Ankara to Tangier, get by with just Latin and Greek, and always find themselves in familiar surroundings. The large cities were especially cosmopolitan and open to outside influences.
In these circumstances new ideas spread rapidly. Especially important were new religious beliefs, including the so-called oriental mystery cults, which offered converts a chance of personal salvation through direct communion with divine powers. The most important cults were the worship of the Phrygian goddess Cybele, the Egyptian Isis, the Persian Mithras, and above all the Palestinian-Jewish cult of Christianity, which ultimately triumphed over all its competitors.
competitors.
* THE RISE OF ROME
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT TIMES
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
Encyclopedia
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$*-".
The Decline of Rome (1 of 1)
In the middle years of the 3rd century AD the Roman Empire was plagued by civil war, foreign invasion and economic breakdown. The political system collapsed, as emperors succumbed one after another to assassination or military revolt. In the fifty years to the accession of Diocletian (284) there were at least twenty emperors who could claim some sort of legitimacy, as well as countless usurpers who were proclaimed by the armies in different parts of the Empire. The increased political significance of the army arose from the fact that the Empire now depended on it for survival. Pressure from German tribes beyond the Rhine and Danube became intense as Gaul and Germany were ravaged by the incursions of two newly formed tribal groups, the Franks and the Alemanni. Meanwhile the Goths on the lower Danube pressed hard on the Balkan provinces and made seaborn raids on Greece and Asia Minor (northern Turkey). In the east a new and aggressive power arose in the shape of the Persians, who made frequent attacks on eastern provinces. They overran Syria in 260 and captured the emperor, Valerian.
Military difficulties made increasing demands on the Empire's finances, which the taxpayers were unable to meet. The government responded by depreciating the currency, which resulted in galloping inflation. By the 250s the coinage was worthless and the monetary system of the Empire had collapsed. Taxes and payments to soldiers and officials began to be paid in kind, and the requisitioning of supplies became a form of organized looting by the armies.
In these circumstances trade and agriculture suffered, land became deserted, and banditry flourished. Famines and epidemics reduced the population, and cultural activity virtually ceased. Public buildings in the towns fell into disrepair, and the only new constructions were fortifications and city walls. Rome itself was surrounded by defensive walls under Aurelian (271-275), a clear sign of the weakness of the Empire - in earlier times an attack on the city would have been unthinkable.
Recovery under Diocletian and Constantine
The first signs of recovery occurred in the 270s with a series of significant military successes and a perceptible upturn in the economy. Political stability returned with Diocletian, who took office in 284 and managed to stay in power for 20 years. Recognizing that he could not rule the whole Empire on his own, Diocletian chose a colleague, Maximian, to whom he entrusted the management of the western provinces, while he took charge of the east. Shortly afterwards the two emperors (Augusti) each took on an assistant (Caesar).
This tetrarchy (rule of four) was intended to be a permanent institution, but when Diocletian retired in 305 civil war erupted between the various heirs. Constantine, son of Maximian's Caesar, was victorious in the west in 312, and in 324 defeated the eastern emperor. He thus reunited the Empire under his sole rule, which lasted until his death in 337.
Under Diocletian and Constantine the Empire was completely reorganized. The army was enlarged and divided between frontier guards and a mobile field army, concentrated in fortified cities and ready to strike back against invaders. Commanders were professional soldiers appointed from the ranks.
The provinces were subdivided into areas of more manageable size, and their governors relieved of military command. The currency was reformed and attempts made to combat inflation. Diocletian also reformed the tax system, and it was he who invented the idea of an annual budget.
These measures reimposed order, but at a price. The central government became more oppressive, and a vast bureaucracy was established. This was self-serving, inefficient and corrupt - an intolerable burden on the taxpayer. Peasants and other workers found it increasingly difficult to make a living and to meet the demands of the state, which in turn attempted to prevent desertion and declining output by compelling workers and their descendants to remain in their jobs. Society thus became more rigid, and the peasants were gradually reduced to serfdom.
The rise of Christianity
From its beginnings in Palestine in the early 1st century AD Christianity spread rapidly. By the 2nd century the new faith had won adherents in all parts of the Empire. At this early stage most people were hostile to Christianity, which was seen as a bizarre and irrational cult, focused as it was on a man who had been executed as a common criminal in the relatively recent past, rather than on a `normal' god. The Christians were also considered antisocial atheists since they refused to believe in pagan gods or to take part in their festivals. The government was largely indifferent, however, and made no attempt to stamp out the cult - the earliest persecutions were spontaneous outbreaks of popular hatred.
The 3rd-century troubles swelled the membership of the Church but at the same time fueled popular hostility. Official persecutions began at this time, and were intensified under Diocletian in 303. These persecutions were ruthless and bloody, but the courage of the martyrs served only to increase the prestige and strength of the Church. The point was not lost on Constantine, who issued an edict of toleration in 313.
Constantine's own personal attitude is uncertain, since he continued to endorse pagan cults and was only baptized on his deathbed. However, he honored the Church and its leaders, and used his authority to settle theological disputes, which from now on become matters of political importance. All subsequent emperors were nominally Christians - with the exception of Julian the Apostate (360-363), who staged an abortive pagan revival - and Christianity became the officially established religion of the Empire.
The Eastern and Western Empires
In 330 Constantine inaugurated a new capital at Constantinople (modern Istanbul). This move symbolized the declining importance of Rome and the growing separation of the eastern and western halves of the Empire. From the later 4th century they had separate emperors and their histories diverged. The West was menaced by foreign invaders, and at the start of the 5th century German barbarians overran Gaul, Spain, Africa and Italy. In 410 Rome itself was sacked by the Visigoths under Alaric. After these disasters things were patched up, and the Western Empire limped on until 476 when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed and replaced in Italy by the Gothic king, Odoacer.
The East survived, however, partly because it faced fewer military problems. Thrace (a region of the eastern Balkans) was continually attacked by Goths and Huns in the 5th century, and by Avars and Bulgars in the 6th, but these threats were dealt with relatively easily, and diplomacy secured peace with the Persians in the east. The Byzantine Empire, as the Eastern Empire became known, although steadily reduced by Arab and then Turkish conquests, was to survive until the 15th century.
WHY DID ROME FALL?
Historians have long puzzled over the causes of the decline and fall of the Western Empire, and have offered a bewildering variety of explanations. Excessive taxation, military weakness and population decline were all relevant factors, but were themselves symptoms of the condition that needs to be explained, and cannot be considered causes in their own right. The same is true of such explanations as moral corruption, while supposed environmental factors such as climate change or poisoning from lead water pipes seem contrived and unconvincing.
Much depends on the subjective view of the historian. For instance, Edward Gibbon (1737-94) in his monumental Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire deeply lamented the disappearance of an enlightened and rational culture, swept away on a tide of barbarism and superstition. Christians have not unnaturally challenged this view of the triumph of their faith. Modern academic historians are more neutral. They tend to emphasize the prosaic fact of the German invasions, which arose from external causes. Barbarian pressure on the frontiers had not existed under the early Empire, but built up in the 3rd century and became irresistible in the 5th. The conclusion of this view is that the Roman Empire did not fall - it was pushed.
* THE ROMAN EMPIRE
* THE SUCCESSORS OF ROME
* THE INVASIONS
* THE PRIMAL RELIGIONS: ANCIENT TIMES
* GREEK AND ROMAN ART
* CLASSICAL LITERATURE
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The map shows the Silk Route on the 13th century. The broad line of the route remained much the same through the centuries, but its terminuses varied with changes in the politics and economics of China and the Middle East. The map also show the boundary of direct Mongol rule in 1260 the year in which their empire was split between the descendants of Genghis Khan, bringing to an end the only period when a single nomad power rules the whole of Central Asia.
+China to the Colonial Age (1 of 1)
Since the fall of the Roman Empire, China has been the largest state in the world, and until the European Renaissance, technologically the most advanced. The Chinese continue to call their country the Middle Kingdom, and for long they thought of it as the center of the world. Beyond the limits of its power were only outer darkness and barbarity.
The historic core of China was the area around the middle reaches of the Yellow River (Huang Ho), what is now the northern part of Henan. There, on the fertile, easily worked soil that colors the river, the domestication of millet resulted in well-established Neolithic farming by 4000 BC. From this heartland, farming spread out in all directions, reaching the other great river basin, that of the Yangtze (Chang Jiang), by 2500 BC. As agriculture reached the warmer south, it adopted a more suitable local staple crop: rice. By 1500 BC, fully developed rice farming had spread south into Indochina and, by 500 BC, northeast into Korea.
Early civilization in the Chinese heartland
In the Yellow River heartland, the scale and organization of the farming communities increased and their technology improved. By 2000 BC, they had developed bronze working and ceremonial centers of some size, even a shadowy dynasty, the Xia. Around 1500 BC the first historical rulers emerged, the kings of the Shang dynasty. The remains of Shang cities and tombs reveal a civilization clearly ancestral to classic Chinese culture. Its script was of the ideographic type still used by the Chinese today, and its capital cities were laid out on a grid system oriented to the points of the compass, as all subsequent Chinese capitals have been. In addition, its bronze, pottery, jade and silk artifacts conformed to a style that the Chinese have held to ever since.
Civilization gradually spread outwards from the core area ruled by the Shang. To the west, the rulers of the Zhou acquired their essentials efficiently enough to displace the Shang as overlords of the Chinese heartland around 1000 BC. The Zhou expanded their power north as far as Manchuria and south over the Yangtze basin. Within those boundaries, advances in agriculture (irrigation) and technology (iron working) made it possible to support powerful local rulers, their courts and warriors. As the centuries passed, power devolved to these smaller states, which eventually - from the mid-5th century BC - became the 'Warring States'.
When they were not making war, the rulers of the fiefs of Zhou China found time to consider the nature of power and government. At their courts, the essentials of Chinese views on the good society were developed. The most prominent administrator-philosopher was Kongfuzi (Confucius; 551-479 BC), who, around 500 BC, set out the basis of an ethic of civilized life that was to influence Chinese society down to the 20th century.
The beginnings of empire
The westernmost of the Warring States, Qin - which was the most remote from the origins of Chinese culture - emerged the final victor. In 221 BC, its ruler became Shi Huangdi (259-210) - 'the First Emperor' - and in the 11 years of his reign established the framework of the greatest state the world had so far seen. His empire spread out to touch the South China Sea and Central Asia. In the north, its boundary with the nomads was defined by the largest single human artifact ever made: the Great Wall. Within these borders, the inhabitants were conscripted to build a massive road system as well as the Wall. The laws, administration, script, currency, weights and measures of the empire were all reorganized and standardized.
Qin rule did not long outlast Shi Huangdi, but the foundations of empire had been firmly laid. Under the succeeding Han dynasty, the Chinese empire defined its traditional bounds. At the end of the 2nd century BC, it spread west into Central Asia, south into Vietnam, and east into Korea. However, these lands were too far away to be held for long, and though they always remained under strong Chinese influence they subsequently went their own way politically.
One result of the expansion of the Han Empire and its contacts with other societies was the arrival of Buddhism. Buddhism spread from India along the Central Asian trade routes that flourished in this period. Although it never displaced native philosophies such as Confucianism, Buddhist beliefs became and remained a major component of popular religion and culture in China.
The Han empire also set the pattern of Chinese government. At the center was the emperor and his court. He ruled through a highly educated bureaucracy selected by rigorous examination. The emperor also had a religious role: the welfare of the empire and its people was bound up with his well-being and correct performance of ritual duties. The carefully planned imperial city was the focus of ritual, bureaucracy, wealth and culture. The Chinese capitals - with populations of up to half a million - were easily the largest and most magnificent cities in the world between the fall of Rome and the rise of London.
The history of the Han empire and of the later dynasties followed a similar pattern. Each dynasty started with a period of just and efficient government and imperial expansion. Then, slowly and inevitably, decline and disintegration set in. In the provinces, generals and governors built up separate local centers of power. Peasants rebelled as the burdens of tax and conscription weighed more heavily. Nomads pressed on the northern frontiers and sometimes broke through.
A pattern of dynasties
The next long standing dynasty, the Tang, saw the empire rise to a classic perfection in the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries AD, ruled with rigid efficiency from Changan, the most crushingly magnificent of the imperial capitals. Song China, between the 10th and 12th centuries, had a more complex structure. It was larger, too, containing over 100 million subjects at its peak. Among its most prosperous parts were the great new commercial cities along the Yangtze and the southern and eastern coasts, with trading links well beyond the traditional bounds of empire. These cities marked a drift of the center of gravity of imperial China away from the Yellow River and towards the south.
The south proved sufficient to sustain a reduced 'southern Song' empire when the Yellow River basin fell under the rule of the Jin nomads from Manchuria in 1126. The northern Jin empire in turn succumbed to more powerful nomads, the Mongols under Genghis Khan (c. 1162-1227), who swept over northern China in a devastating campaign between 1211 and 1215. In the mid-13th century the Mongol attack was renewed and, by 1280, after more destruction, all China was under the rule of the Mongol Kublai Khan (1215-94).
The Yuan dynasty of the Mongols lasted a century. Although it adopted many of the trappings of traditional empire, it was overthrown in 1368 by a nationalist revolt. The first emperor of the new dynasty, the Ming, was Hongwu (Hung-Wu; 1328-98), who had started life as a peasant. The Ming re-established the empire in its old form, and this empire flourished for over two centuries, then collapsed in the face of a peasant revolt in the mid-17th century. Order was restored by another nomad dynasty, the Qing, originating in Manchuria.
The last empire
The Qing (Manchu) dynasty, which ruled for two and a half centuries from 1659, formed an alien veneer on an empire that remained in its essential workings the traditional Chinese state. Under the Qing the empire reached new heights of power, expanding to include Tibet, Turkestan and Mongolia. The population within its borders eventually rose past the 400 million mark. Its capital, Beijing (Peking), with a population approaching a million, remained the largest city in the world until the end of the 18th century.
The decay and collapse of Qing authority in the 19th century was in part a repetition of the old cycle. Population pressure, official corruption and increased taxation made peasant life a misery and revolt an attractive alternative. Thus far the old patterns held - but the barbarians pressing on the empire were different: this time they were Europeans.
The Europeans did not want to rule; they wanted to trade at a profit. The Chinese empire was unwilling to expand its trade with the West, partly from a desire to remain self-sufficient, and partly out of incomprehension. However, trade was forced on the empire, in particular the import of opium from British India. Following the two Opium Wars (1839-42 and 1856-58), the conditions of trade were imposed by the European powers.
In exchange, the Western powers helped to put down the most formidable peasant rebellion of the 19th century, in which several million people died. The Taiping ('heavenly peace') movement controlled much of the south of China during the 1850s in the name of a peasant egalitarianism influenced by elements of Christianity borrowed from Western missionaries. However, European arms and generalship helped to bring it to a blood-soaked end in 1864. The Boxer Rebellion that broke out at the end of the century, which was turned against the Europeans by the Qing court, was equally effectively suppressed by Western forces in 1901. The court was punished for its complicity by being obliged to make further trading and other concessions. With China divided into Western (and Japanese) spheres of influence, the stage was set for the final act.
IMPERIAL DYNASTIES OF CHINA
IMPERIAL DYNASTIES OF CHINA
Shang 1480 BC - 1050 BC
Zhou 1122 BC - 256 BC
(Warring States 481 BC-221 BC)
Qin (Chin) 221 BC - 206 BC
Han 202 BC - AD 220
Jin (Tsin) 265 - 316
Sui 589 - 618
Tang 618 - 907
Song (Sung) 960 - 1127
(in south only 1127 - 1279)
Yuan (Mongol) 1271 - 1368
Ming 1368 - 1644
Qing (Manchu) 1644 - 1911
THE SILK ROUTE
The Silk Route first flourished at the beginning of the Christian era, when it linked the Han and Roman Empires at the height of their prosperity. Silk, and later porcelain, traveled from east to west; in exchange came gold, silver, gems, ivory and natural rarities unobtainable in China.
The passage of technological ideas along the same route mainly benefited the West. The Chinese developed paper, printing, gunpowder and the magnetic compass well before the West. It is likely that the Silk Route carried these ideas westwards, where much more advantage was eventually taken of them. In the 16th century the arrival in the East of Western ships steered with compasses and defended by guns marked the end of the usefulness of the Silk Route.
Route.
* JAPAN TO THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* RELIGIONS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
* CHINESE AND JAPANESE ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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China to the Colonial Age (page 1)
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India and Southeast Asia to the Colonial Age (page 1)
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Akbar's troops besieging a castle in 1568. Akbar, the greatest of the Mogul Emperors of India, successfully pursued a policy of imperial expansion. He also made many administrative reforms, and showed toleration and respect towards non-Muslims. (Victoria and Albert Museum, London)
"India and Southeast Asia (1 of 1)
The history of civilization in the Indian subcontinent begins in the northwest (now mainly Pakistan). This region formed an extension of the Middle-East/Iranian cultural zone and it was from that direction that it acquired Neolithic farming techniques by 5000 BC. The techniques spread on, first to central India and then to the far south by 2000 BC.
Up in the northwest, Mesopotamian patterns were repeated. Settlements became larger, bronze working was introduced, and ruling elites - probably priestly - emerged. A climax was reached in the Harappan civilization, which flourished in the Indus Valley between 2300 and 1700 BC, focused on the two cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. In these cities the full repertoire of Bronze Age urban society was displayed: a literate elite, carefully organized and controlled water and food supplies, and densely packed artisan quarters - a society of rank and order that was reflected in the detail of its urban planning. The urban civilization of the Indus Valley flourished for 600 years and then collapsed for reasons that remain unclear, although life in the villages went on much as before.
The northeast of the subcontinent took a different line. It, too, formed part of a wider zone, that of tropical Southeast Asia. As in other tropical areas, the development of settled farming took varied forms, rather more horticultural than agricultural, eventually adopting rice as its staple crop. By 1500 BC this part of India, the Ganges basin, had evolved a Bronze Age culture of its own and succeeded the Indus Valley as the core area of Indian civilization.
The shift from the Indus to the Ganges is associated with the entry into the subcontinent of the Aryans - Indo-European pastoralists from the Iranian steppe. The Aryans imposed themselves on the native Dravidians, and the resulting amalgam became the Hindu society that has been the majority community of India ever since. This amalgam contained elements from both cultures: the gods and the language were Aryan but many of the customs, including the all-important caste system, were Dravidian.
Kingdoms and empires
The Hindu kingdoms of the Ganges valley entered the Iron Age in around 800 BC. Some 300 years later the region produced one of history's great religious teachers, Prince Gautama, the Buddha ('enlightened one'). The dominant kingdom then and for several centuries subsequently was Magdalha: its pre-eminence increased with the advent first of the Nanda dynasty (362-321 BC), then of the Mauryans. Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 BC) conquered most of northern and central India, and his grandson Ashoka (272-232 BC) placed inscriptions even further afield, in Afghanistan and the southern Deccan.
An Indian empire of this extent was exceptional. Mostly the Indus valley belonged to empires that lay to the west - to Persia between the late 6th and 4th centuries BC and to Alexander the Great at the end of the 4th century BC. After Ashoka, the Greeks returned to the upper Indus basin and a rich Indo-Greek society developed in the area; they in their turn were supplanted by nomad rulers from Central Asia, notably the Kushans (1st to 5th centuries AD).
The expansion of Hindu culture
The decline of the Mauryan dynasty after Ashoka saw the north and center of the subcontinent revert to a glittering mosaic of regional kingdoms. They were only briefly brought under the sway of later empire builders - the Guptas in the 4th century AD and Harsha in the first half of the 7th century.
Hindu expansionism was mercantile and cultural rather than imperial, although Ceylon (Sri Lanka) was brought within its influence by invasion from the north of India around 500 BC. First the relatively backward tribal areas of southern India were brought into contact with the center and north, and then overseas trading links were developed to the east. Trade planted the seeds of Indian culture far and wide. By the 3rd century AD, Hindu kingdoms were beginning to spring up all over previously tribal Southeast Asia - in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Java and Sumatra.
Buddhism followed Hinduism into Southeast Asia at a time when its influence at home in India was declining, and established itself as the dominant faith in Burma, Thailand and Cambodia. The splendor of Indian culture in Southeast Asia was to reach its climax between the 9th and 13th centuries in the great Buddhist Khmer empire of Cambodia and the wide Hindu maritime kingdom of Shrivijaya, centered on Sumatra.
Back in the subcontinent during this period there were no great empires but only regional kingdoms. For the first time, the south produced an important kingdom - Vijayanaga (c. 1350-1550).
Islam in India
The first Muslim invasion of India occurred in the 8th century, when an Arab army marched in from Iran and made Sind (southern Pakistan) a province of the Caliphate. The next moves came much later, in the 11th and 12th centuries, with Muslim princes in Afghanistan launching a whole series of campaigns that eventually brought down the Hindu kingdoms of the Ganges valley and replaced them with an Islamic state, the Sultanate of Delhi (1206). The Sultanate was the most powerful of the Indo-Islamic states and, under Muhammad bin Tughluq (1324-51), made a strong bid to create a wider empire.
However, in 1526, Babur of Kabul, a descendant of Timur and therefore nominally a Mongol or 'Mogul', invaded northern India and overthrew the Delhi Sultanate. Babur's attempt to carve a wider Indian empire for himself was incomplete at his death in 1530. His son, Humayun, was unable at first to maintain his conquests in northern India against local Muslim rulers. It was only shortly before his death in 1556 that he was able to re-establish Mogul rule over a wide area of northern India
From the base established by his grandfather, Akbar, the greatest of the Moguls, was able to extend his power over the whole of northern India in the next half-century. Akbar sought to bring unity to the diversity of the subcontinent. He removed power from existing local elites and put it into the hands of subordinates drawn from all over India - including Hindus - and western Asia. Akbar rationalized and made uniform the administration and law of the empire. He attempted to bring unity to an empire containing peoples of many faiths by actively pursuing religious tolerance and by claiming to rule with divine mandate that embraced all creeds and sects.
Under Akbar's successors in the first half of the 17th century - Jahangir and Shah Jahan - the empire continued to flourish. Its boundaries were edged forward, particularly in the south. The economy flourished, providing a base on which the artists of Mogul India could produce such works as the Taj Mahal.
In the second half of the 17th century, under Aurangzeb, the momentum of territorial expansion was maintained. By 1700 the Mogul Empire covered all the subcontinent except its southernmost tip. Yet, as it expanded, the Empire changed its nature and Akbar's ideals were discarded. Under Aurangzeb the Mogul Empire became a much more exclusively Muslim state, discriminating against its Hindu majority. The unity and administrative efficiency of the Empire began to decline, being replaced by a looser, more traditionally Indian structure embracing a hierarchy of local powers.
After Aurangzeb, Mogul power declined further and provincial governors, some of them Hindus, began asserting their independence. There were also new players in the game by this time - the European trading companies. The Portuguese had been visiting India since the 16th century, and the Dutch, French and British arrived in the course of the 17th. At first the companies stuck to trading, then they became involved in local politics and in wars between themselves and against native rulers. By the 1760s the British East India Company had emerged as the dominant power on the subcontinent. It was the beginning of a new phase of empire-building that ultimately brought all India under British rule.
ANGKOR AND ANURADHAPURA
Hindu kingship left its most haunting relics in the deserted temple-cities of southern Asia, above all, Angkor in Cambodia and Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. The kings of these Hindu (and later Buddhist) kingdoms took on divine characteristics at their accession to power. In their lifetime, their palaces intermingled with the temples of their fellow gods; after death, their shrines were added to those of the other deities. Because they were the residences of gods, the cities symbolized the universe in microcosm.
The god-king was responsible for the well-being of his people. If he failed in that responsibility, he and his city had failed to please the other gods. The solution to a national disaster was therefore to start again with a new and auspicious capital.
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA
* BUDDHISM
* ISLAMIC ART
* ASIAN ART
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Japan to the 20th Century (page 1)
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The castle at Kumamoto, central Kyushu. The castle was built in the 17th century, at a time when the Tokugawa shogunate was reasserting central control in Japan.
Japan to the 20th Century (1 of 2)
Japan was first peopled from Asia in one of those periods in the last Ice Age when lowered sea levels joined offshore islands to the mainland. Over tens of thousands of years, hunting and gathering communities thrived on the Japanese islands. They were among the earliest societies in the world to develop pottery, probably around 10 000 BC, and, for much of the next ten thousand years, the pottery of the Jomon culture showed what could be achieved in material terms by a society living on the proceeds of hunting, gathering and perhaps some horticulture.
The techniques of fully developed rice farming reached the southern island of Kyushu from Korea, the nearest point on the Asian mainland, around 400 BC and spread up the island chain to reach the east coast of the central island of Honshu by AD 100. Progress further north was much slower: the northern island of Hokkaido was not brought into the farming zone until the 19th century, and the hunting-gathering culture of the Ainu survived there until recently.
Links with the Asian mainland were maintained and strengthened by the early farming communities of Japan. It is possible that considerable numbers of immigrants arrived, and certainly technical skills and cultural ideas were borrowed, including the Chinese script, Confucianism and the then popular Chinese form of Buddhism. These were added to Shinto, the traditional Japanese ancestor worship, to form a trio of often inter- related systems of belief.
Imperial Japan
By the 7th century AD, Chinese concepts of government were being borrowed in the southern Yamato Plain of Honshu, whose rulers dominated much of central and western Japan by this time. A Chinese-style emperor was established at Nara (710-84) in a Chinese-style imperial city, and the main features of the Chinese system of government were imitated. The court was moved to Heian (modern Kyoto) in 794, and the 9th century saw an elaboration of the imperial system there.
Having borrowed from China, the Japanese absorbed and transformed their borrowings. At the same time, contacts with China diminished. The imperial system, too, was transformed. The emperor became a religious figurehead, power being held by members of an aristocratic court family, the Fujiwara. Then power in turn slipped away from the Fujiwara and the court and into the hands of provincial governors and landowners.
Feudal Japan
By the 12th century, much of the real power in Japan was exercised by the provincial barons (daimyos) through bands of warriors. In the mid-12th century, the head of one baronial family, Taira Kiyomori, seized power as a military dictator. His successor, Yoritomo, leader of the Minamoto family, took the logic of the separation of real power and imperial dignity to its conclusion. He ruled Japan after 1185 from Kamakura (near Tokyo), eventually under the title of shogun, in the name of a powerless emperor who remained in courtly isolation at Kyoto.
The Kamakura shogunate lasted a century and a half. For much of that time, the shogun himself was a figurehead, the real power being exercised by regents from the Hojo family. In the 14th century, the Ashikaga family instituted a new shogunate based at Kyoto. This fell apart into warring provincial baronies. An emperor and a shogun still nominally ruled in Kyoto, but real power was con- tested by the provincial daimyos and their military forces.
This was the Japan that came into contact with European (mainly Portuguese) traders and missionaries from the 1540s. During the 16th century, Western ideas, particularly Christianity, made a significant impact on Japan, but the impact that really mattered was that of European firearms. Three military leaders in turn - Oda Nobunaga (1578-82), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1582-98) and Tokugawa Ieyasu (1600-16) - used muskets to fight their way out of the impasse of feudal anarchy and into control of a united Japan.
Tokugawa Japan
Under Ieyasu, the shogunate was established at Edo (Tokyo) in the control of the Tokugawa family. The emperor, with some dignity restored, remained at Kyoto. The Tokugawa shogunate was built on feudal concepts but governed as a military bureaucracy. In particular, the daimyos were subject to close supervision from Edo and their local power diminished by long periods of compulsory residence at the court of the shogun. Their families remained at court the whole time as potential hostages.
Loyalty to the shogunate was further encouraged by excluding foreign influences. Christianity was sup pressed, and the only foreign traders permitted were the Dutch, who were restricted to Nagasaki harbor. Firearms, having done their work, were limited to the use of the government.
Hermetically sealed from outside influences, Japan went its own way between the mid-17th and the mid-19th centuries. Tokugawa Japan was a stable and, in many ways, a prosperous pre-industrial society, able to sustain great cities and a complex bureaucracy - and also eventually able to face the challenges of the 19th century.
* CHINA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* WORLD WAR II
* BUDDHISM
* RELIGIONS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
* CHINESE AND JAPANESE ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Japan to the 20th Century (page 2)
ftsTitle
Samurai in traditional armor. By the time this photograph was taken in 1907, the rank of samurai had been abolished for some thirty years.
Japan to the 20th Century (2 of 2)
Japan transforms
The industrial West arrived with Commodore Perry and an American fleet in 1853. Japan was forced into the global trading system. The loss of face and the impact of the outside world destabilized an already weakening Tokugawa regime. In 1867-68, power was seized at Kyoto by a group representing daimyos from western Japan together with reforming imperial courtiers.
The prestige of the emperor was restored, the last Tokugawa shogun was overthrown and, in 1869, Emperor Mutsuhito was installed with executive power at Edo, renamed Tokyo (`the eastern capital'). The emperor adopted `Meiji' (`enlightened government') as his throne name, and the term is also applied to the period of his reign (1867-1912).
The group of privy councilors who exercised power on behalf of the emperor then proceeded to transform Japan. Within ten years virtually all vestiges of feudalism had been removed. The daimyos and samurai were pensioned off and the peasants given ownership of the land they worked (and then heavily taxed). Western systems of law, administration and taxation were introduced in 1889, followed by a constitution and parliament along Western lines.
The Meiji reformers saw that survival in the modern world demanded not just Western institutions but also a Western-style economy. This was a little more difficult to achieve, but industrialization, sponsored by the state, was well underway by the beginning of the 20th century.
By then Japan was sufficiently well-established in world prestige to be accepted as an equal by the Western powers, who relinquished their unequal treaty rights. Japan even began to fight and win Western-type wars, against China in 1894-95 and Russia in 1904-5, coming away with the beginnings of a colonial empire in Taiwan, Korea and the south of Manchuria. The career of Japan as a major world power had begun.
THE SAMURAI
For much of the time between the 12th and the 19th centuries, Japan was ruled by a military government, the bakufu (`camp government'), under a shogun (`great general'). Beneath the shogun were the ranks of the military barons (daimyos), and beneath them their warriors - the samurai. Lower down the social scale were the civilian ranks of peasants, artisans and merchants.
The ties that bound this military society together were the ties of personal loyalty. Japanese society in this period is called feudal because it was held together in similar ways to feudal Western Europe during the Middle Ages. Power and protection flowed down from person to person through the ranks of society; loyalty, service and dues in cash and kind passed upwards in return. A samurai - the equivalent of the European knight - gave absolute loyalty to his daimyo and exercised the power of the sword on his behalf. The samurai, like all expensive, heavily armed warriors on horseback, were a privileged elite. They were trained to a code of loyalty, honor, bravery, self-discipline and the stoical acceptance of death - self-inflicted if that were the only way to retain honor. The iron discipline of this warrior life was softened by an emphasis on culture and the arts: a samurai was an expert with the pen as well as the sword.
From the mid-17th century, the stability of Tokugawa Japan limited opportunities for actual fighting. Military duties became largely ceremonial and many samurai made good bureaucrats. As a final irony, many also fell into debt with the merchants who ranked at the bottom of the feudal society. Only a few samurai felt the loss of honor sufficiently to raise their swords in revolt when the Meiji reformers abolished their rank in the 1870s. Their days of glory were already long past.
* CHINA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* WORLD WAR II
* BUDDHISM
* RELIGIONS OF CHINA AND JAPAN
* CHINESE AND JAPANESE ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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Africa, Australasia and Oceania to the Colonial Age (page 1)
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An engraving of a Maori canoe, dating from around 1774. The Maoris were skillful carvers of wood, and put their talents to good use when decorating their sailing vessels.
Africa, Australasia and Oceania to the Colonial Age (1 of 4)
Africa south of the Sahara is the cradle of the human race: the first man-like creatures evolved there, as did the first men. As the millennia passed, early man (Homo erectus) evolved into modern man (Homo sapiens), who in turn developed different varieties to suit different environments. Sub-Saharan Africa produced four: the Negroes in the West African bush, the Pygmies in the equatorial rain forest, the Nilo-Saharans of the middle Nile, and the Bushmen of the open lands in the east and south.
The relatively small area of Africa north of the Sahara belonged, then as now, to a different world; its peoples, sometimes referred to as Hamites, are relatives of the Semites of the Middle East. They can be divided into three main groups: the Berbers of the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), the Egyptians, and the Cushites of the Red Sea coast. The history of these peoples belongs largely to that of the Mediterranean and the Middle East.
Australasia's history is short compared to Africa's. The first men only arrived in New Guinea and Australia around 50 000 BC, when the last Ice Age lowered the sea level sufficiently to make island-hopping along the Indonesian archipelago relatively easy. And, for a long time, that was as far as they got. Even relatively close Oceanic island groups like the New Hebrides and New Caledonia were not colonized before 2000 BC, and Hawaii and New Zealand were still undiscovered and uninhabited when the Christian era began.
Africa: the earliest farmers
The Nilo-Saharans of the Nile Valley had the closest contact with the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern world to the north. The practice of farming spread from the Middle East through Egypt to the middle Nile valley sometime before 3000 BC. When it spread beyond the Nile valley, it encountered an environment that was more suited to specialized pastoral farming. Soon, Nilo-Saharans and Cushites and their herds were moving west along the Sahel, the area of open savannah to the south of the Sahara, and into West Africa.
In West Africa the land was more suited to settled farming. In the course of the final millennium BC, village communities began to appear in this zone and the Negro peoples who lived in them subsequently developed other skills too, notably the ability to smelt iron. The first of these West African Iron Age communities recognized by the archaeologists is known as the Nok culture; it has been dated to the last few centuries BC.
The combination of agriculture and iron created a potent force in prehistoric society. Around the beginning of the Christian era, Negro farmers - mainly Bantu - began to spread east and south out of West Africa, settling areas previously roamed by hunter-gatherers. By AD 500 they had reached as far as the east coast of southern Africa, leaving only the deep rain forest to the Pygmies and the Kalahari Desert to the Bushmen.
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE PRIMAL RELIGIONS: MODERN TIMES
* ASIAN, AUSTRALASIAN AND OCEANIC ART
* NATIVE AMERICAN AND AFRICAN ART
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Africa, Australasia and Oceania to the Colonial Age (page 2)
ftsTitle
The walls of Timbuktu. The city, now in Mali, formed part of the Mali kingdom from the late 13th century, and became an important part of the trans-Saharan trade route. From the 14th century it was one of the focal points in the gold-salt trade.
Africa, Australasia and Oceania to the Colonial Age (2 of 4)
Africa and the wider world
Settled, agricultural Black Africa of the Iron Age had several major links with the wider world. That world - to the north and east - offered trade in exchange for Africa's gold, ivory and slaves and was eventually to offer monotheistic religion as well. Egypt had always been in touch with Nilo-Saharan Nubia (northern Sudan, known to the Ancient Egyptians as `Cush'). Egypt had even been briefly ruled by a Nubian dynasty, the 25th, in the century around 700 BC. Later, Christianity found its way up the Nile to Nubia and to Ethiopia, to the kingdom of Axum (later Abyssinia), as early as the 4th century AD.
The eastern coast of Africa, too, had its contacts: long standing ones with the Arabian peninsula, and occasional ones with lands further to the east. It was, however, probably an accident which brought the Malagasy people from Indonesia to settle Madagascar around AD 500. Arab expansion brought Islam to the northeast coast, as far south as Somalia, by the 12th century, and the establishment of trading settlements along the coast down to Mozambique between the 9th and 13th centuries. In West Africa, trade began to reach across the Sahara from Muslim North Africa in the 8th century and Islam followed into the Sahel in the 11th century.
Africa, Australasia and Oceania to the Colonial Age (3 of 4)
African kingdoms
African contact with the Arab world reveals for the first time something of the political history of Black Africa and of the rise and fall of its kingdoms. The profit from that contact - particularly from the gold trade - enabled some African kingdoms to establish themselves on a much more lavish scale than before. In West Africa, the kingdoms of Ghana (8th-12th centuries) and Mali (13th-14th centuries) dominated the routes between the gold fields and the desert trails to North Africa. Similarly, the eastern kingdom of Zimbabwe (13th-15th centuries) controlled that region's gold fields and its trade with the coastal Arabs.
The pattern of African history was fixed on this basis until the 19th century. From the later 15th century, the Portuguese took over much of the east-coast Arab trade and went on to establish a similar trade on the west coast, where they were largely replaced by the Dutch in the 17th century, who in turn were replaced by the British and French in the 18th. Inland African kingdoms - such as Benin (17th century), Oyo (18th century) and Ashanti (18th and 19th centuries) in West Africa - lived in symbiosis with the coastal traders, supplying them with gold and slaves to work the plantations of the Americas in exchange for textiles, iron goods and guns.
Only in the far south was there a different type of development: Dutch colonists, the Boers, began to settle that area in the second half of the 17th century. By the end of the 18th century Boer expansion had led to clashes with the southern most of the Bantu kingdoms and begun a pattern of war and colonization which was to bring about the fall of all black African kingdoms except Abyssinia by the end of 19th century.
Australasia
After the last Ice Age, the waters finally rose to divide New Guinea and Australia sometime around 5000 BC, and the two great islands went their separate ways. Both developed advanced Stone Age cultures. That of New Guinea - which was in the course of acquiring Neolithic food production methods from Southeast Asia at the time - was based on horticulture, and that of Australia on hunting and gathering.
The Aboriginal culture of Australia was largely isolated from this time. It was not unchanging in its isolation, but neither internal pressures nor sporadic contacts with the rest of the world led to the development of agriculture. Instead, roving hunter-gatherers reacted in sophisticated ways to a wide variety of environments. The rich cultural life sustained by this successful adaptation to time and place has all but disappeared under the destructive impact of European settlement, leaving little more behind it than myths of the `Dream Time' and a fading legacy of rock paintings.
* ANCIENT EGYPT
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE PRIMAL RELIGIONS: MODERN TIMES
* ASIAN, AUSTRALASIAN AND OCEANIC ART
* NATIVE AMERICAN AND AFRICAN ART
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Africa, Australasia and Oceania to the Colonial Age (page 3)
p388-4
Section
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* ANCIENT EGYPT
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE PRIMAL RELIGIONS: MODERN TIMES
* ASIAN, AUSTRALASIAN AND OCEANIC ART
* NATIVE AMERICAN AND AFRICAN ART
Africa, Australasia and Oceania to the Colonial Age (4 of 4)
Oceania
With their particular brand of food production fully developed in New Guinea, Melanesian horticulturalists began to settle the islands to the east, reaching the New Hebrides and New Caledonia by 2000 BC. At the same time, other peoples - originally of east Asian stock - were moving east from the Philippines and surrounding islands to settle Micronesia and the northern and eastern fringes of Melanesia.
These newcomers to the area brought with them a different language and culture from those previously developed in Melanesia. But they also brought a similar Neolithic horticulture which, combined with fishing, was well suited to the smaller islands of the Pacific. Settlers from such a background had reached Fiji by 1500 BC, spreading from there to Tonga and Samoa. It was in this area over the next millennium that the language and culture of the Pacific islanders developed the traits we recognize as Polynesian.
An outstanding aspect of Polynesian culture was a magnificent tradition of seafaring. Time and again, Polynesians set out into the unknown on outrigger canoes loaded with the essentials of their life - coconut, taro, yam, banana, breadfruit, pig and chicken, none of which was native to the area - and used their skill and luck to colonize islands all over the vastness of the Pacific.
The canoes reached as far as Easter Island, where Polynesian culture produced one of its strangest manifestations, the great stone heads with diminutive bodies which have puzzled outsiders since the first European contacts of the 18th century.
In the south, the main islands of New Zealand were much larger than the other Polynesian islands and lay in the temperate zone. In this different environment, Maori culture developed its own variations. At first, the peculiar fauna of New Zealand, particularly the flightless moa, made hunting an important part of life. When there were no more moas, the Maori turned to an agriculture founded on sweet potatoes and fern rhizomes, and developed a warrior culture based on fortified villages. They were to become the only Pacific people to offer major armed resistance to European advances in the 19th century, and peace between the Maoris and the British colonists was only finally achieved in 1871.
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Africa, Australasia and Oceania to the Colonial Age (page 4)
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p390-1
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Pre-Columbian America (page 1)
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Machu Picchu, a city of the Incas perched high in the Andes of Peru. The site occupies an area of 13 km2 (5 sq mi), and includes a temple, a fortress, and terraced gardens. The city escaped destruction at the hands of the Spanish Conquistadores, and was only rediscovered in 1911.
Pre-Columbian America (1 of 6)
America was the last of the habitable continents to be colonized by man, an event that occurred during the last Ice Age. Two opposing geographical changes made it possible.
First the sea level fell because of the amount of water locked up in the icecaps: this led to the appearance of a land bridge connecting Asia and Alaska. Then the melting of the North American icecap removed the barrier to movement between Alaska and the rest of North America. There was just enough time for a few families of Siberian mammoth hunters to make the journey before the rising sea level obliterated the land bridge.
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* INDEPENDENCE IN THE AMERICAS
* THE EXPANSION OF THE USA
* NATIVE AMERICAN ART
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p390-2
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Pre-Columbian America (page 2)
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Mayan ruins in the jungles of north-western Guatemala.
Pre-Columbian America (2 of 6)
This happened in around 10 000 BC, and within 1000 years the descendants of these few families had spread over North and South America. Nearly all the American Indians derive from this stock: the only exceptions are the Athapascan tribes of Canada and western North America, and the Inuit (Eskimo) of the far north; these two peoples arrived by boat five or six thousand years later.
As the climate improved and the mammoths disappeared from the American scene, the early Americans found it difficult to support themselves by big-game hunting alone; many of them turned to smaller game, and to the gathering of edible seeds and fruit. In the end, around 2500 BC, this led to the appearance of agricultural communities in Meso-America (Mexico and Central America) and the central Andean region of South America (Equador, Peru and Bolivia).
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* INDEPENDENCE IN THE AMERICAS
* THE EXPANSION OF THE USA
* NATIVE AMERICAN ART
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Mayan ruins in the jungles
**++*
p390-3
Pre-Columbian America (3 of 6)
The early agriculturalists
In Meso-America the staple crop was maize. In the Andes, and on their western side, a number of crops were domesticated, including the potato, and, after 1500 BC, maize. By 1000 BC a third area of farming - relying largely on manioc - had developed in the tropical area now covered by Colombia and Venezuela.
Later in the first millennium BC maize farming reached what is now the southwest USA and spread from there into the Mississippi basin around AD 500. By that time, the whole western part of the continent between Mexico and northern Chile was occupied by maize farmers, while tropical farmers were settled on river banks along the whole length of the Amazon river system and had reached the Caribbean islands as well. Tropical farming continued to spread after this, reaching south to the Parana basin by AD 1000 and then moving north up the Brazilian coast.
Not all Americans turned to agriculture, however. Along the coastline, on the open plains of both North and South America and in the deep tropical jungle of the Amazon basin, specialist fishers, hunters and gatherers maintained rich and varied ways of life up to the 19th or 20th centuries.
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* INDEPENDENCE IN THE AMERICAS
* THE EXPANSION OF THE USA
* NATIVE AMERICAN ART
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Pre-Columbian America (page 3)
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p390-4
Pre-Columbian America (4 of 6)
The development of civilization
As in the Old World, the acquisition of agriculture was only the beginning of a sequence of developments which culminated in civilization. Settled farmers can support settled places of worship. After a while, by coming together in sufficient numbers, they can build temples of some size and maintain the priestly elites to go with them. This development had taken place separately by 1500 BC in both of the core areas of temperate agriculture, Meso-America and the central Andes, and spread as far as the Mississippi basin by the 8th century AD (the Temple Mound culture).
The steps in the organization of society beyond tribal farming and local religious centers were taken only in Meso-America and the central Andes. The initial focus of the development of civilization in these two areas was religious, centering on the building of increasingly grandiose temples and then temple-cities. This phase reached its peak in the Maya cities of lowland Meso-America, at Teotihuacan in the Mexico valley, and at Tiahuanaco high up in the Andes, all at the height of their splendor in the first millennium AD. At the heart of these ceremonial cities were great artificial temple mounds (`pyramids') set within rigid geometric layouts that had astronomical significance. In Meso-America, an obsession with the calendar led to complex mathematical calculations and the development of hieroglyphic means of record. Another obsession of Meso-American religion was human sacrifice, presumably intended to appease the gods and maintain the pattern of the seasons.
In the 7th century Teotihuacan was abandoned and the same fate gradually overtook all the other pyramid cities of Mexico and Yucatan. No one knows why - perhaps the rituals had simply become too onerous to sustain. The setback was not permanent, however, and by 900 new cities were under construction, notably Tula, the capital of the Toltecs, just to the north of present-day Mexico City.
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* INDEPENDENCE IN THE AMERICAS
* THE EXPANSION OF THE USA
* NATIVE AMERICAN ART
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Pre-Columbian America (page 4)
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p390-5
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Pre-Columbian America (page 5)
ftsTitle
Native American ruins in the Southwestern United States show the advanced building techniques that were used to build these ruined structures thousands of years ago.
` M Pre-Columbian America (5 of 6)
Toltecs, Aztecs and Incas
These temple-cities were not primarily the capitals of political states. They were the religious and social centers of agricultural peoples - organized into tribes and chiefdoms - who periodically came up to their temples to worship and celebrate. States grew out of the dominance that the warriors of certain tribes established over their neighbors during this period.
In Meso-America, the earliest warrior state of major importance was probably Teotihuacan, which in the 6th century AD was sending armed embassies far afield. The next was that built up by the Toltecs, who dominated a large part of central Mexico and the Yucatan between the 10th and 12th centuries AD from their base at Tula and Chichen Itza.
The following period was one of warring local states, none of which established more than a brief regional dominance. Then from the mid-14th century the Aztecs, based on their great island city of Tenochtitlan in Lake Texcoco (the site of Mexico City), spread out to bring a large part of Meso-America under their rule. Theirs was the most impressive empire Meso-America had seen - and the last native one, falling to Spanish invaders under Cortez in 1519-21.
In South America, the first military hegemony of some size was that established from Huari between the 9th and 12th centuries AD. It was succeeded, after a period in which regional states reasserted themselves, by the coastal power of Chimu from the late 14th to mid-15th centuries, and then by the highland rule of the Incas of Cuzco.
By the end of the 15th century, Inca power spread over virtually the whole of the area from modern Ecuador to northern Chile. The Inca empire was another first and last empire, scarcely established before it was overthrown by Spanish forces under Pizarro in 1532-33.
The Aztec and Inca empires fell in unequal struggles. They were at a cultural level roughly equivalent to the Old World Bronze Age. They had built their first proper cities and had begun to organize themselves to collect tribute efficiently from the tribes and chiefdoms they dominated. The Incas had also built a system of roads and forts to control their domains more effectively. None of these could protect them against such instruments of advanced Old World civilization as the iron sword, the firearm and the horse-borne warrior.
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* INDEPENDENCE IN THE AMERICAS
* THE EXPANSION OF THE USA
* NATIVE AMERICAN ART
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Pre-Columbian America (page 6)
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Plains Indians. An engraving by George Catlin, who made extensive studies of North American Indians in the mid-19th century.
Pre-Columbian America (6 of 6)
THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
It is difficult to get back beyond five centuries of disruption (and destruction) to obtain a clear picture of the life of the native Americans north of the Rio Grande before 1492. It is even difficult to separate the Indian brave from his horse - a European import which the Plains Indians took over with great enthusiasm in the 18th century.
The million or so inhabitants of North America in 1492 were scattered across the whole continent and gained their living in a wide variety of ways. In and around the Mississippi basin and over to the east coast were well-established farmers living in villages of solid wooden houses. They relied largely - but not exclusively - on agriculture for their subsistence. In the southwest were other farmers, living in a more hostile and arid environment, but occupying even more solid, stone-built pueblos. Along the northwest coastline were prosperous villagers who relied on the ample resources of the sea and rivers for their main food supply.
Elsewhere, life was more mobile: following game on the Plains or gathering plants in the deserts and hills west of the Rockies. There were hunters in the forests beyond the Great Lakes and then up towards the Arctic were the Inuit (Eskimo) fishers and hunters.
The villagers and some of the more organized bands of hunter-gatherers were grouped into tribes. Tribes shared a local language and culture and often claimed a common descent. They were governed by meetings of tribal elders and came together from time to time to worship and socialize. Tribes further distinguished themselves from other tribes by a readiness to fight them.
War called for individual leadership. Among the villagers of the east and the northwest, this had led to the grouping of some of the tribes into more permanent confederations under the rule of chiefs. Chiefs could claim more extensive rights of government and a greater share of resources for themselves and their warriors than was possible among the individual tribes - and they took them. However, with the coming of the Europeans, the Indians were forced further and further west, until by the end of the 19th century all their lands had been lost.
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* INDEPENDENCE IN THE AMERICAS
* THE EXPANSION OF THE USA
* NATIVE AMERICAN ART
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The Rise of Islam (1 of 3)
In the early 7th century of the Christian era something extraordinary happened in the Arabian peninsula. A charismatic figure united its tribes, who then embarked on a century-long campaign of conquest. The man was Muhammad, called the Prophet, and his religion was Islam - meaning `submission to the will of God'. Islam spread rapidly eastwards to Persia and westwards into North Africa and Spain. After these initial successes Muslim conquests peaked around 750. Then in the 13th century it won new adherents in Central Asia - the Mongols. The 13th century also saw Islam spread to India. During the 14th and 15th centuries Islam continued to spread - to large areas of Africa, and even Southeast Asia. Today it is one of the world's major religions. Islam's initial success was due to a number of factors. Before he died in 632, Muhammad urged a jihad (`holy war') against unbelievers, although the causes of Arab expansion were more complex than a simple crusade. The first targets of this expansion were areas adjacent to Arabia belonging to the Byzantine and Sassanid (Persian) Empires. These two great powers had exhausted themselves after decades of continuous warfare. In addition the Christians of the region belonged to sects that had no love for the Byzantine Empire. In a decade Arab armies conquered Syria (636-638), Egypt (640-642) and Mesopotamia (639-646). Persia collapsed within the same time scale. Muslim tolerance of Christians and Jews meant that many welcomed their rule.
The early caliphates
The Umayyad dynasty (651-749), reigning in Syria, created a strong, flexible state, under its caliphs (successors of the Prophet). However, Islam was split when a combination of dynastic and theological issues produced the breakaway Shiite (or Shia) sect. This consisted of followers of the Prophet's son-in-law Ali, who had been murdered in 661.
In 749 regional separatism and Shiite opposition produced a revolution and the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty. The new caliphs removed their power base to a new capital - Baghdad. The Umayyads held on only in their most recent conquest, Spain. Eventually, in 929, the Umayyad ruler of Crdoba took the title of caliph for himself.
The political unity of the Muslim world - Dar-al-Islam - was further fractured in the 9th and 10th centuries. The Fatimids (claiming descent from the Prophet's daughter, Fatima) established another caliphate in Tunisia. In 969 they conquered Egypt. Once again Shiite forces from the periphery had conquered a center of Muslim power. Meanwhile within the Baghdad caliphate real power had fallen into the hands of Turkish army commanders. Although the Abbasid dynasty was to survive until 1258, the power of the caliphs was considerably diminished.
Dealing with the `barbarians'
Between the 11th and 13th centuries the Islamic world suffered a series of shocks at the hands of peoples it regarded as barbarians: Seljuk Turks, Western Europeans, and Mongols. However, whereas both Seljuks and Mongols were in time converted to Islam, the advancing Europeans - the Crusaders - remained Christian, and indeed saw themselves as fighting a kind of holy war of their own.
By the early 13th century the Muslims had lost nearly all of Spain to the Christians, and this loss was to be permanent. In Syria, Christian conquests - the Crusader states - were more short-lived. They were too close to the twin heartlands of Islamic power - Egypt and Iraq - ever to have much chance of survival. In 1187 Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, recaptured Jerusalem and in the late 13th century his work was completed by the Mamluk sultans of Egypt. The Mamluk sultans, moreover, had managed to keep their independence when much of the Muslim world collapsed before the Mongol advance in the mid-13th century. Once converted, however, the Mongols took Islam even further afield, into India and China.
* THE SUCCESSORS OF ROME
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
* THE MIDDLE EAST
* ISLAM
* ISLAMIC ART
* THE LITERATURE OF ASIA
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The Rise of Islam (page 2)
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The Turkish siege of Vienna in 1683 marked Islam's deepest penetration into Europe. Following an appeal from the pope, an army drawn from Germany, Lorraine and Poland came to the city's aid. After a 15-hour battle the Christian forces under Jan Sobieski defeated the Turks, and the siege was lifted. However, the Turks were to remain dominant in southeast Europe for another two centuries.
The Rise of Islam (2 of 3)
Ottoman expansion
From small beginnings around 1300, the Ottoman Turks emerged as the foremost Muslim power. They made Anatolia (Asian Turkey) the center of attacks on the Byzantine capital, Constantinople - the great fortress city that had withstood Arab sieges in the 670s and in 717-718. By the end of the 14th century, devastating Ottoman raids into the remaining Byzantine territory had reduced the Byzantine Empire to the walls of Constantinople. The city was saved, not by the misbegotten crusade of 1396, which the Turks easily crushed, but by invaders from Central Asia under their fearsome leader, Tamerlane. Tamerlane (or Timur; c. 1336-1405) - who claimed descent from the Mongol Genghis Khan - had led his armies from his capital in Samark and in an orgy of conquest and destruction across Mongolia, India, Russia and the Middle East, and in 1402 he defeated and captured the Ottoman sultan. This was merely a stay of execution for Constantinople, however, since Sultan Mehmed II's artillery and huge forces overwhelmed resistance in 1453.
From their new capital, now named Istanbul, the Ottoman sultans embarked on campaigns of expansion. In 1517 Selim I conquered Egypt, and under his successor, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-66), the Ottoman Empire reached its peak. Certainly the Ottomans did much to encourage the spread of Islam. The northern boundary of their conquests in Europe was marked by the failed sieges of Vienna in 1529 and 1683, but the Ottomans were to hold on to most of southeast Europe until the 19th century. The naval defeat at Lepanto in 1571 meant that Mediterranean expansion was effectively over by 1600, although the Ottomans were able to conquer Crete in 1669. Christian Spain expelled its Muslim population - the Moriscoes - in the mid-17th century.
Despite this check in Europe, overall the picture was still one of expansion. Just as the Christian Spanish and Portuguese spread their religion along the trade routes, so Ottoman venturers carried Islam to Africa and Southeast Asia. During the 14th and 15th centuries Malaya and Indonesia were converted to Islam, and its status as a worldwide religion was assured.
Muhammad watches over his supporters during the battle at Mount Uhud in a late 16th-century Turkish miniature painting. The battle was against his Meccan opponents who opposed his religious activities.
The Rise of Islam (3 of 3)
ISLAMIC CULTURE
In many areas of intellectual and material culture, the Islamic world dwarfed Christian Europe. Although defined by the Qur'an (Koran), Hadith and Sharia, Islam proved itself very receptive to cultural influences. The older civilizations of Egypt, Greece, Persia and India all contributed to produce a fusion that was distinctive to each region, fusions that are most obvious in the visual arts.
In the sciences - mathematics, chemistry and medicine - and also in philosophy, Muslim intellectuals made great strides. The greatest scholar of the conquest period was Abd Allah ibn Abbas, renowned for his interpretation of the Qur'an. Under the early Umayyads, al-Zuhri developed the art of jurisprudence and wrote a biography of Muhammad. Both these developments helped to create a Muslim self-identity.
In the early Abbasid period, al-Kindi became the first important Islamic philosopher. He had a good knowledge of ancient Greek works and ideas, and these were to have a profound effect on Islamic thinking. Towards the end of the 9th century, al-Yaqubi's history provided both a chronological framework and a study of Greek science. He is also regarded as the founder of geography in the Islamic world.
From Hindu mathematics the Arab mathematician al-Khwarizmi took what we now call `Arabic' numerals, including the symbol for zero. He also introduced the writing down of calculations in place of using an abacus (the term `algorithm' derives from his name), and extended algebra (the word derives from Arabic al-jabr, `transposition'). It was through the Arabs that algebra reached Europe.
The study of medicine was central to Islamic science, with no less than 70 scholars producing works on the subject. The great caliph Harun al-Rashid founded a hospital in Baghdad in AD 800, and individual physicians were in demand all over the medieval world. The names of the greatest scholars became well known in the West: Razes (ar-Rhazi) the medical encyclopedist, Haly Abbas (al-Majri), and Avicenna (Ibn Sinna), the 11th-century physician and philosopher.
Such men contributed enormously to the rediscovery of classical knowledge in Christian Europe. It was Avicenna, under the influence of his mentor al-Farabi, who brought Aristotle's Metaphysics to the attention of Christian scholars. This single work was to dominate the development of philosophy in Europe. Interestingly, the Aristotelian commentaries of ibn-Rushd, known as Averros (1126-98), had more influence on Christians than on Muslims.
By 1200, on the threshold of an intellectual renaissance in Europe, Islam had begun to follow the strictures of the 11th-century thinker al-Ghazali: the study of `foreign sciences' had to conform to Islamic doctrine. It was this reassertion of theological control in the Islamic world that was at the root of the growing scientific and technological dominance of Europe, a dominance that was to become apparent by the end of the Middle Ages.
Crusaders laying siege to Damascus during the Second Crusade (1146-49). The siege failed following internal squabbling between the Crusader kingdoms and the Byzantines.
The Successors of Rome (1 of 2)
The Roman Empire has had many imitators. After AD 400 the western part of the Empire (though not yet the east) began to disintegrate into various kingdoms ruled by Germanic peoples. Around 800, Charlemagne reunited many of them to create a Frankish empire in Rome's image. This later became known as the Holy Roman Empire. With the failure of Charlemagne's Carolingian dynasty in the 10th century, the Eastern Franks took over the Empire, whose base moved to Germany and Italy. The Empire was ruled by successive European dynasties until the Habsburgs monopolized the succession from the 15th century onwards. This Empire lasted, latterly in the guise of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1918. The eastern Roman Empire was based on Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and ruled separately from 380 onwards. Here decline was slower. This empire became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Byzantium, the Greek name for Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire survived the Arab invasions and numerous attacks from both east and west for centuries, alternately expanding and contracting. It was only finally extinguished by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Even then many of its traditions continued in the Ottoman Empire, which itself did not dissolve until after World War I.
The Sack of Rome
Although the image of the Goths sacking Rome in 410 is a powerful one, the act was more symbolic than significant. Germanic peoples had been pressing on Roman borders for centuries and had already broken through once, in the 3rd century. However, the conquest of the 5th century was to prove permanent. By around 500, successor states were established by the Visigoths in Spain, the Vandals in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy, and the Franks in Gaul (France). It was the Franks who were to survive and attempt to recreate Rome's empire. The others fell either to Justinian's `reconquest' in the mid-6th century (see below) or to Islam.
The Carolingian Empire
The Carolingian dynasty was based in northern France. It was named after Charlemagne (`Charles the Great'), king of the Franks from 768 to 814. Charlemagne's father, Pepin the Short (751-768), had ousted the old Merovingian dynasty that had ruled the Franks from. 500 to 751. The Carolingian rise to power was due to military success. Charlemagne's grandfather, Charles Martel, had checked the Muslim advance at Poitiers in 732, and Charlemagne himself went on to conquer Italy, Hungary and Germany. He created the largest state in the West for 400 years. More than that he consciously declared it Roman and Christian.
Charlemagne had himself crowned emperor of the West by the pope in Rome on Christmas Day 800. His court at Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) became the center of a cultural renaissance without which much classical learning would have been lost. Charlemagne also did much to strengthen the administration of the Empire.
But a combination of the Frankish system of partible inheritance (division amongst heirs) and external attack worked against the Empire's survival. Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious (814-840) divided the Empire between his three sons. In the late 9th century, the imperial leadership proved itself ineffective against Muslim, Viking and Magyar (Hungarian) raids. The result was that power slipped into the hands of regional aristocracies.
The German Empire
The East Frankish (German) aristocracy became particularly prominent. In the early 10th century, its leaders - the dukes of Saxony - replaced the Carolingians as kings east of the Rhine. By first checking and then defeating the Magyars (Battle of the Lech, 955) and by keeping the Vikings at bay, Henry I (919-936) and his son Otto I `the Great' (936-973) established claims to empire. Otto entered Italy with his army in 951 and was crowned emperor at Rome in 962.
The ending of the custom of partible inheritance meant that this empire lasted until the end of the Middle Ages and beyond. When the Saxon (Ottonian) dynasty died out (1024), first the Salians took over (until 1125), then the Hohenstaufen dynasty (until 1254).
The efforts that these rulers made to keep control over Italy led to a series of quarrels both with cities such as Milan - which were increasingly wealthy and independent - and with popes intent on asserting the `liberty of the Church' against secular interference. The quarrels with popes led to the emperors insisting on the God-given dignity of their own position; thus in the 13th century the term `Holy Roman Empire' came into vogue.
The Holy Roman Empire
In theory the Empire had become an elective (rather than a hereditary) monarchy in the 12th century, and in 1356 the procedure by which a college of seven electors chose the emperor-to-be was laid down in detail. Yet - apart from a period from the mid-13th to the mid-14th century - in practice the electors were content to elect the dynastic heir. Thus Charles IV (1346-78) was succeeded by his heirs until they died out in 1437. From then on until the end of the Empire in 1918 the Austrian Habsburgs remained firmly on the throne.
By far the most prominent of the Habsburg emperors was Charles V. Holy Roman Emperor from 1519 until his abdication in 1556, and combining the Habsburg, Burgundian and Spanish inheritances in a single pair of hands, he ruled over the largest European empire since Charlemagne. Ironically, however, it was the troops of this most Christian emperor that sacked Rome in 1536.
The Eastern Empire under Justinian
Secure within the walls of Constantinople the Eastern Empire weathered the storm of the 5th century. During the reign of Justinian (527-565) it underwent an intellectual, administrative, architectural and military revival. A new law code, the great church of Hagia Sophia and an attempt to enforce religious uniformity set the tone for the rest of Byzantine history.
Justinian's most ambitious project was to reconquer the Empire's lost western provinces, and so turn the Mediterranean once again into a `Roman lake'. In the 530s his great general Belisarius achieved some stunning triumphs: the reconquest of Africa, Sicily and most of Ostrogothic Italy. But in 542 bubonic plague struck. This and subsequent epidemics may have reduced the Empire's population by as much as one third. While Justinian wrestled with the devastating economic and financial consequences, the Ostrogoths took the opportunity to fight back. Yet by the early 560s Justinian's armies had once again gained control of Italy and reconquered southern Spain from the Visigoths. At the time of the emperor's death his greatly extended empire was still intact.
ntact.
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
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The Successors of Rome (page 2)
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Charlemagne as depicted in a stained-glass window (c. 1200) in Strasbourg Cathedral.
The Successors of Rome (2 of 2)
Crisis, survival and recovery
In 568 new invaders, the Lombards, entered Italy. Conceivably they might have been thrown out, but Justinian's over-confident successors chose this moment to break with Rome's ancient enemy, Persia. There followed a long and destructive series of wars, and in 626 the Persians, in alliance with the Avars, laid siege to Constantinople itself. The soldier-emperor Heraclius (610-641) chose this moment to launch a counterattack on the Persian heartlands, and while Constantinople's walls held firm, the Persian Empire crumbled.
But the emperor's conjuring trick was in vain. In the 630s and 640s his exhausted empire was unable to prevent the loss of its richest provinces - Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia and then Africa - to the Arabs. The tax revenues of Egypt alone were about one third of those of the whole Empire. This was a blow from which the Empire never entirely recovered.
The 7th century also saw the Lombards make further advances in Italy, while the Danube frontier collapsed as Slavs moved in and settled the Balkans in increasing numbers. This was a century that left its mark on the map: from now on the Middle East was to remain a Muslim preserve, and the Balkans a largely Slav one.
For Constantinople itself worse was still to come - not only the great Arab sieges of the city in the 670s and 717-718, but also the incessant pressure of Arab raids into Asia Minor (modern Turkey) in these and subsequent decades. Fortress towns took the place of the old `open' cities of antiquity. The feeling that God had forsaken them led to a radical questioning of religious practices, notably the veneration of icons (images of Christ and the saints). The result was an iconoclast (`icon-breaker') movement, which disturbed Byzantine society from the 720s until the final restoration of the icons in 843. Yet several of the `iconoclast' emperors were able soldiers and, within its reduced borders, the Empire survived.
In the 10th century there was something of a revival. Talented military emperors pressed east into Armenia and even campaigned in Syria again. In the 960s Crete and Cyprus were recovered - although in the West the Arabs completed their conquest of Sicily. The main achievement of this period was the combination of Byzantine military power and Greek cultural influence, which led to the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity by the Bulgars and Russians.
The legacy of Byzantium
The mid-11th century, however, found the Empire once again on the retreat. Normans occupied southern Italy and, more seriously, Seljuk Turks overran the interior of Asia Minor. In the 12th century the Bulgars regained their independence. Disaster followed in 1204 when the Fourth Crusade, diverted from its original goal by Venetian policy, ended by sacking Constantinople, the greatest city of the Christian world. Although the Latin Empire set up by the Crusaders in Constantinople lasted only until 1261, the re-established Byzantine Empire was to be but a shadow of its former self.
The last two centuries of Byzantine history are a record of decline in the face of pressure from the Ottoman Turks. The final fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 was a case of an elephant crushing a flea.
Yet Byzantium had always meant more than merely its territories. It created Orthodox Christianity and it preserved Greek culture. For centuries this preservation of Greek culture was to be a source of inspiration to the West, either directly or indirectly through the Arabs. In the end its Turkish conquerors were themselves captured by the image of Byzantium. They chose to rule, in Byzantine manner, from the place they called simply `Stamboul' - the city.
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
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The Invasions (1 of 3)
Following the great barbarian invasions that had eaten into, and finally destroyed, the western part of the Roman Empire, further movements of people continued in Europe, especially in the northwest. Between the 5th and 11th centuries AD, Britain in particular was the target of a series of invasions that fundamentally changed its culture, language, institutions and history. The sea, which subsequently proved Britain's main defense, was used as a highway by many invaders - Celtic and Germanic peoples, Vikings, and finally the Normans.
For 400 years the Romans had colonized Britain south of the Solway. The native Britons, who were Celts, had been largely Romanized, and Christianity had been established. But in AD 407, pressure from barbarians on other parts of the Empire led to the final withdrawal of Roman forces from Britain, leaving a power vacuum that other peoples were eager to exploit.
Picts and Scots
Already in the 4th century the Picts - who occupied what is now Scotland - were raiding Britain south of Hadrian's Wall, but they made no settlements. Then the Picts themselves became the target of the Scots, who originated in Ireland. In the 5th and 6th centuries Scots from Antrim took over Argyll, Bute and Arran, establishing the kingdom of Dal Riada. In 603 southward expansion by the Scots was halted by the Northumbrian English, but cultural and dynastic penetration of the Pictish heartland of northeastern Scotland continued until the 9th century, when the last of the Picts were absorbed into the kingdom of Scotland under Kenneth MacAlpine (846-58).
The Anglo-Saxon invasions
The chief threat to southern Britain came from pagan Germanic invaders - principally Angles, Saxons and Jutes, but also Frisians and Franks. Collectively, these peoples are known as Anglo-Saxons, and it is from their language that modern English derives.
An account by the British priest Gildas, written a century later, indicates that inc. 450 British leaders hired Saxon mercenaries to help repel the Picts. However, the Saxons sent for reinforcements and turned on their former employers. Gildas goes on to describe how the British fought back, winning a great victory at `Mount Badon' (whose date and location are not known). Although later Welsh legends associate King Arthur with this phase of British resistance, there is no secure evidence that he existed at all.
The Anglo-Saxon advance resumed in the later 6th century. In the first half of the 7th century Anglo-Saxon control reached the Firth of Forth in the north and the borders of Wales in the west. However, in the southwest (Cornwall) and northwest (Strathclyde) the British retained their independence.
The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
Throughout the 7th and 8th centuries there was a fluctuating number of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, sometimes as many as a dozen.
Gradually, however, a `big three' emerged: Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex - the three kingdoms that were the cutting edge of expansion northwards and westwards. Yet it is clear that relations between native British and Anglo-Saxon invaders were not exclusively hostile. In Wessex and Mercia some kings bore British names, and in their western parts many British place names survive. It is possible that Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria were mixed British and Anglo-Saxon societies in which Anglo-Saxon (English) culture came to be dominant - except in one respect. Christianity - the religion of the Britons - had been reintroduced. In 597 St Augustine had been sent from Rome to convert the English and to bring the British Churches under Roman authority. Augustine founded the church at Canterbury, but further north the main work of conversion was carried out by Scottish monks.
During the 7th and 8th centuries Anglo-Saxon kings were more concerned with a struggle for supremacy over each other than further expansion at the expense of the Welsh. This internal struggle was interrupted by raids carried out by fierce seafarers from across the North Sea - the Vikings.
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* THE SUCCESSORS OF ROME
* THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR
* EARLY MEDIEVAL ART
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* EPICS AND ROMANCES
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The Invasions (page 1)
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p396-2
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o The Invasions (2 of 3)
The Vikings
The Vikings (or `Norsemen') in fact came from three distinct parts of Scandinavia - Norway, Sweden and Denmark. They were brilliant seamen, their longships taking them from the Black Sea in the east to America in the west. Viking armies were small, usually to be numbered in hundreds, and were not militantly anti-Christian - by the end of the 11th century they had all been converted to Christianity. The Vikings shared many values with the rulers of the societies they attacked in western Europe and found it easy to stay as settlers.
The Norwegians were active on both shores of the Irish Sea, ultimately settling in eastern Ireland, western Scotland, the Isle of Man and northwest England, as well as the Orkney, Shetland and Faeroe Islands. They also sailed the Atlantic to colonize Iceland. It was from Iceland that Eric the Red sailed west in c. 986 to discover Greenland, where a settlement survived into the 15th century. In around 1000 the Norwegians, under Leif Eriksson, also briefly settled in northeast North America, which they called Vinland (possibly Newfoundland).
The Swedes went east into Russia where they formed the first organized states. Sailing down the great river systems to the Black Sea, they also traded with - and even assaulted - the Byzantine capital, Constantinople.
The Danes directed most of their energies against the Anglo-Saxon and Frankish kingdoms (the latter in what is now France and north Germany). By the end of the century the kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia and Mercia had been taken over. These Viking kingdoms in the area known as the Danelaw were short-lived, but they were to have an important impact on the culture and language of England. Only Wessex (England south of the Thames) survived the onslaught, under a remark-able king, Alfred the Great (871-899). By 960 his successors had conquered the rest of England, forming one kingdom for the first time. Ironically the elimination by the Vikings of Wessex's Anglo-Saxon rivals had paved the way for the unification of England.
Viking attacks were renewed during Ethelred II's reign (978-1016). After prolonged resistance the English kingdom finally capitulated to the Danish king, Cnut, in 1016. However, this conquest did not involve a major new settlement of Scandinavians in England, and in 1042 Ethelred's son, Edward the Confessor, recovered his throne.
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* THE SUCCESSORS OF ROME
* THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR
* EARLY MEDIEVAL ART
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* EPICS AND ROMANCES
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The Invasions (page 2)
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The Invasions (page 3)
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Norman cavalry assaulting English footsoldiers during the Battle of Hastings (from the Bayeux Tapestry). After the first cavalry attack foundered on the steep slope, the Normans feigned a retreat, and drew some of the English down from their hill and into a vulnerable position. William then put his archers into action, and these, combined with renewed cavalry and infantry attacks, finally defeated the English.
The Invasions (3 of 3)
The Normans
In 911 a Viking leader named Rollo was granted control of the lower Seine valley by the West Frankish king. In the following decades Rollo's descendants and their followers extended their grip on the Channel coast. Thus they created the duchy of Normandy, `the land of the Northmen', but in the process lost their Viking character and merged into the aristocracy of northern France.
In the 11th century the Normans were one of the most successful peoples in Europe.
Early in the century Norman mercenaries began to carve out territories for themselves in southern Italy, ultimately seizing the whole area from its Greek and Lombard rulers, and then taking Sicily from the Arabs.
The Norman conquests in southern Italy were acts of private enterprise. The conquest of England, on the other hand, was organized by the duke of Normandy himself, with all the resources of his duchy behind him. In 1051 Duke William (later known as `the Conqueror') had been made heir to his cousin, the childless Edward the Confessor. But in England the most powerful man after the king was Harold Godwinson, and when Edward died (January 1066), the English acclaimed Harold king.
Harold's defense of his crown was complicated by the necessity to repel a Norwegian invasion under Harold Hardrada, which he crushed in a great battle at Stamford Bridge near York. Meanwhile William landed on the southeast coast. In a daring campaign (September-December 1066) he demonstrated his superior military skill, defeating and killing Harold at the Battle of Hastings. He was then crowned king on Christmas Day 1066.
William had seized control of a richer and more powerful kingdom by a bold and well-organized coup. Until 1071 the Norman grip on England was severely tested by revolts and Danish invasions, but this opposition hastened the destruction of the English ruling class and its replacement by a new Norman-French nobility. For more than 300 years the language of the rulers of England was to be a form of French, which left a lasting impact on the English language). Yet initially only some 10 000 newcomers were involved, and there were many things they could not, indeed did not, wish to change. The more sophisticated administrative structures of Anglo-Saxon England were taken over virtually unchanged, and these formed the framework of English government not just in the Middle Ages, but down to the present day.
* THE DECLINE OF ROME
* THE SUCCESSORS OF ROME
* THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR
* EARLY MEDIEVAL ART
* THE STORY OF ENGLISH
* EPICS AND ROMANCES
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Christianity Resurgent (page 1)
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The siege of Antioch during the First Crusade. In June 1098 the city eventually fell to the Crusaders, who proceeded to massacre the Muslim population. This illustration is from the Chronicles of William of Tyre (late 12th century).
-N-Christianity Resurgent (1 of 1)
The era of the Crusades saw Christian Europe once more on the offensive. Inspired by a reformed and revitalized papacy, knights flocked to rescue Jerusalem from Islam. Even though in the long run the Crusader states that they set up in the Holy Land were to prove vulnerable to the Muslim `counter-crusade', elsewhere the crusading spirit was to achieve more permanent results. In Eastern Europe missionaries and warrior monks extended Christendom into previously pagan areas. In a process known as the Reconquista, Spain was recovered from the Islamic Moors after four centuries of conflict. And in the motives of men like Prince Henry the Navigator, organizer of the Portuguese exploration of Africa, the crusading outlook moved out into a wider world.
In the mid-11th century, for the first time in European history, a series of popes placed themselves at the head of a radical reform movement - sometimes known as the Gregorian Reform, after the most controversial of these popes, Gregory VII (1073-85). The aim of the reformers was to abolish both the family life of the clergy and secular control of the Church. Not surprisingly they ran into fierce opposition from clergy who wanted to keep their wives and from secular rulers who wished to retain their traditional powers, notably the right to appoint and invest (i.e. ceremonially install bishops and abbots.
In time the reformers' struggle for what they called the `freedom of the Church' - a struggle known as the Investiture Contest - was to produce some strange martyrs, above all St Thomas Becket, murdered in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170. But its immediate effect was to put the papacy at the storm center of European politics and to create a new style of militant Christianity. Those warriors who took up their swords on the pope's behalf were promised the rewards of heaven.
The Crusades
No sermon has ever had greater impact than that delivered by Pope Urban II at Clermont in 1095. It set in motion the whole crusading movement. All that had been intended was to send some military assistance to the Byzantine Emperor, Alexius I, who was battling against Turkish nomads in Asia Minor. In the west, however, men believed that these Turks were making life intolerably difficult for pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem - the Holy City - and in consequence the response to Urban's preaching was on a totally unexpected scale. In 1096 several huge armies set out on the long march to Jerusalem. Their intention was to free the Christian churches in the East and recapture the Holy City, which had been in Muslim hands since the 7th century.
Despite great difficulties the knights of the First Crusade took Jerusalem and established a handful of small states. These were vulnerable to Muslim counterattack and Saladin (?1137-93, sultan of Egypt and Syria) recaptured the Holy City in 1187. All military attempts to recover the city proved futile - even Richard the Lionheart failed. Only the diplomacy of Emperor Frederick II brought about its temporary recovery (1228-44).
For much of the 13th century the Crusaders held on to the coast of Syria and Palestine, but this too gradually fell into the hands of the powerful Mamluk sultans of Egypt. When the port of Acre fell in 1291 the Crusaders lost their last base in the Holy Land. In the 14th century, crusades were little more than raids. The last one, in 1396 - which took a French and Burgundian army as far as Nicopolis (on the Danube) - was ignominiously defeated by the Ottoman sultan.
Although the primary motive of most Crusaders was religious fervor, there was also a good deal of self-interested adventurism involved. At times quarrels broke out between the various European contingents. The Fourth Crusade never even reached the Holy Land. Instead, at the instigation of Venice, the Crusaders captured Christian Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Venice's rival in the eastern Mediterranean.
In the 13th century, crusades were mounted within Christendom, both against heretics (such as the Cathars in southern France) and against the papacy's political enemies, such as Emperor Frederick II. In the 15th century crusading became limited to Eastern Europe, against the Turks or the Hussite heretics of Bohemia - generally without success.
The Reconquista
In the Iberian Peninsula it was a different story. In the mid-11th century the small Christian kingdoms of northern Spain, principally Castile and Aragon, began to expand at the expense of the Muslim states that had long dominated their peninsula. In 1139 the kingdom of Portugal was founded but initially the progress of reconquest was by no means irreversible. On two occasions, in 1085 and 1145, Islam was reinforced by waves of Berber tribesmen from North Africa. They defeated Christian armies and briefly united the Muslims.
Towards the end of the 12th century, however, the tide was turning inexorably in favor of the Reconquista. The Castilian victory at Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 set the seal on this process, and swift advances followed. By the mid-13th century Muslim rule was confined to the Emirate of Granada. This state survived until 1492, when it was finally snuffed out by the dual monarchy of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.
The papal-imperial conflict
Although from 962 onwards the medieval emperors were German, they drew the bulk of their revenues from Italy. This led to tension with the papacy since for centuries the popes had been trying to establish a state of their own in central Italy. When the Hohenstaufen emperor, Henry VI (1190-97), conquered Sicily in 1194 it looked as though the encircled papal state was doomed. But Henry died in 1197 and the civil war that followed enabled Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) to rebuild the papal states. Yet Henry's descendants, notably Frederick II (1215-50), remained as dangerous neighbors until in 1268 the pope employed a French prince, Charles of Anjou, to defeat and kill the last Hohenstaufen.
Exile, schism and reform
Central Italy, however, was rarely at peace and early 14th-century popes decided to stay in the relative security of Avignon in France, even though this led to them being regarded as puppets of the French monarchy. It also upset many devout Christians who believed that the pope's place was in Rome. Ironically the papacy's return to Rome in 1377 was followed immediately by what the faithful regarded as an even greater scandal: the outbreak of what became known as the Great Schism. From 1378 until 1417 there were always either two or three men simultaneously claiming to be the rightful pope. At the same time reformist movements - Lollards in England and Hussites in Bohemia - believing that the Church was corrupt, turned against a papal establishment that no longer had the will to reform. These currents of opinion were early signals of the Protestant Reformation that was to break out a century later.
THE MILITARY ORDERS
The reformed papacy's call for knights to serve Christ and the pope led to the creation of a new type of warrior: the soldier monk. In 1128, St Bernard of Clairvaux (?1090-1153) devised a `Rule' by which men might live as trained knights devoted to fighting a holy war, while simultaneously sharing the monastic obligations of poverty, chastity and obedience.
The first order to be created was the Knights Templar, named after the Temple of Solomon, their base in Jerusalem. Soon afterwards the Knights of St John, or Hospitallers, were converted from a purely medical to a military role. Both orders were predominantly French in composition. In imitation and competition German knights formed the Teutonic order, and Spain provided several other groups, such as the knights of Calatrava.
The military orders were the cutting edge of the Crusader states and on all the borders of Christendom. Donations of land in Europe gave them great wealth, enabling them to carry out their military role. The Templars also became great bankers. But after the fall of Acre they were rich men without a cause. This proved too much of a temptation for Philip IV of France in 1306 he had the Order of the Temple dissolved and profited from its riches.
The other orders survived and adapted to changed circumstances. The Teutonic Order returned to its homeland and headed the drive to the east into Slav lands, creating a Baltic empire in what later became Prussia. After playing a large part in the warfare and politics of Eastern Europe, they were defeated by the Poles at Tannenberg in 1410.
The Hospitallers established themselves on Rhodes. From there they harried Muslim coasts and shipping for two centuries. Chased off the island by the Turks in 1520, they defended Malta against the same enemy in 1565. There they survived, although with declining military significance, until overrun by Napoleon's forces on their way to Egypt in 1798.
PRINCIPAL CRUSADES AGAINST ISLAM
Crusade Dates Region Principal leaders Results
First 1096-99 Holy Land Counts and dukes of Capture of Jerusalem
France, Germany and and establishment of
southern Italy Crusader states
Second 1146-49 Holy Land Louis VII, king of France Failed siege of
(1137-80) Conrad III, Damascus
German emperor (1138-52)
Third 1189-92 Holy Land Emperor Frederick I Capture of Acre,
'Barbarossa' (1152-90; defeat of Saladin at
died en route) Richard I Arsuf (1191), failure
'the Lionheart', king of to take Jerusalem
England (1189-99)
Fourth 1200-4 Intended for Conrad, marquis of Capture of
Holy Land Montferrat Baldwin, count Constantinople and
of Flanders Dandolo, doge establishment of Latin
of Venice empire of
Constantinople (until
1260)
Fifth 1216-21 Egypt Papal legate Failed attack on Cairo
Sixth 1228 Holy Land Emperor Frederick II Recovery of
(1215-50) Jerusalem by treaty
(until 1244)
Seventh 1248-52 Egypt Louis IX (St Louis), Failed attack on
A battle between the French and English during the Hundred Years War. Both sides acquired allies during the War. The French were joined by the Scottish in the 'Auld Alliance' and the English by the Flemish cloth towns and later by Burgundy. The desertion of the Burgundian allies in 1435 helped to swing the war in favor of the French.
The Hundred Years War (1 of 3)
In the 14th and 15th centuries, rivalry between the kingdoms of France and England became the dominant political feature of northwestern Europe. From 1337 until 1453 the two states fought out an irregular succession of wars. At issue was the English king's claim to the French crown, as well as control of lands the English kings held in France. This conflict is known as the Hundred Years War. During the course of the 13th century a series of powerful rulers belonging to the Capetian dynasty, Philip Augustus (1180-1223), Louis IX (St Louis, 1226-70), and Philip IV (`the Fair', 1285-1314), had made France the outstanding kingdom in Europe. They could raise taxes and muster armies on a grander scale than any other European ruler. Even so their success depended on the cooperation of the great and independent-minded nobles of France. These nobles owed allegiance to the king, shared in the profits of taxation and enjoyed wide-ranging rights of justice over their extensive lands. One of these nobles held the title `duke of Aquitaine'. He was also the king of England.
The origins of the conflict
Ever since 1066, when the duke of Normandy took the English throne as William I, the Norman kings and their Plantagenet successors had continued to enjoy possession of huge territories in France. This straddling of the English Channel reached its height in the 12th century with Henry II, whose marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine established a Plantagenet empire that incorporated most of western France. However, King John's incompetence meant that in a few years between 1203 and 1206 most of these territories were lost to Philip Augustus, and by the 1330s only Gascony (the southwest of Aquitaine) was still retained by the English king. Yet even these much-reduced dominions continued to provide ample cause for conflict. As duke of Aquitaine the king of England owed formal allegiance to the French crown. Moreover his Gascon subjects were only too willing, whenever it suited their own private interests, to appeal from the duke's court to the court of the king of France.
Tension in the 1330s
What added spice to the long-standing wrangling between the two monarchies was that when the Capetian dynasty died out in the direct male line in 1328, then the Plantagenet Edward III (1327-77), as a maternal grandson of Philip the Fair, had an excellent claim to the French throne. In fact, however, the crown passed to a nephew, Philip of Valois, who became Philip VI (1328-50). Soon the two kings were fighting a kind of border war, the initial phases of the struggle being confined to Scotland and Flanders.
From the 1290s, when Edward I of England had attempted to conquer Scotland, the Scots had found common cause with France in the `Auld Alliance' against England. More significantly, the merchants and workers in the thriving Flemish cloth towns - Bruges, Ghent and Ypres - found themselves drawn by economic self-interest to the English side - for it was from England that they imported the raw material, wool, indispensable to their industrial prosperity. Yet the county of Flanders `belonged' to France, and so they owed allegiance to Philip VI. It would therefore ease their consciences if Edward III proclaimed himself the true French king. At Ghent in January 1340 Edward duly assumed the title `king of England and France', which was to be borne by his successors for nearly five centuries, until 1801.
* THE INVASIONS
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE RISE OF BRITAIN
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Picture
Outline
ftsTitle
A 15th-century knight. The main weapon used during charges would have been a lance. When riding into battle, a shield would probably not have been carried as the development of such effective plate armor had by this time made it superfluous.
The Hundred Years War (2 of 3)
The first phase: 1337-1360
Initially Edward's claim to the French crown may have been a bargaining counter by which he hoped to obtain French recognition of English sovereignty over Gascony. He built up an alliance with the towns and nobles of the Low Countries (including Flanders), and took an army there in 1338-39. In 1340 an English naval victory at Sluys, off the Flemish coast, put an end to a threatened French invasion of England.
France was a much richer country than England, however, and at this stage the war was proving an immense strain on Edward's resources. Not until some Breton and Norman nobles deserted the Valois cause did the fortunes of the war on land begin to go Edward's way. In 1346 the main French army was routed by the firepower of English archers at Crecy. In 1347 Edward captured Calais, which was to remain an English possession until 1558. At the Battle of Poitiers, ten years after Crecy, the English archers, this time under the command of Edward, Prince of Wales (the `Black Prince'), repeated their slaughter of the over-confident French knights. At Poitiers the French king, John II (1350-64), was taken prisoner, and after four years of ransom negotiations the French agreed at Bretigny to hand over no less than a third of the land of France in full sovereignty. In return Edward was to renounce his claim to the throne.
French recovery
But the Treaty of Bretigny was never quite ratified in full. Both sides preferred to leave loopholes that might be exploited later if opportunity arose. Meanwhile Edward rapidly occupied his new territories and created his eldest son `prince of Aquitaine'. But the Black Prince's stern rule aggravated a number of the leading Gascon nobles and they appealed for help to the new king of France, Charles V (1364-80). In 1369 Edward formally resumed his French title and war broke out anew. Under the shrewd leadership of Charles V and of captains such as Bertrand du Guesclin, the French avoided pitched battles. Instead they settled down to use their greater resources in the piecemeal reconquest of territory. Generally the English found themselves out-maneuvred and in 1396 the English king, Richard II (1377-99), was happy to agree to a 28-year truce.
Henry V and the Burgundian alliance
Charles VI of France (1380-1422) suffered recurrent bouts of mental illness. This unleashed a ferocious struggle for control between the dukes of Burgundy and Orleans, both of them representatives of junior branches of the royal house. Here was a situation which the English warrior-king, Henry V (1413-22), was ideally equipped to exploit. This marked the opening of the third phase of hostilities, and after his stunning victory at Agincourt in 1415 Henry launched a full-scale war of conquest.
On the French side things became even more chaotic when in 1419 the heir to the throne (the dauphin, later Charles VII) became implicated in the murder of Duke John `the Fearless' of Burgundy on the bridge at Montereau. As a result John's son, Duke Philip `the Good', determined to throw all his weight behind the English cause. Within a year of the murder at Montereau, Charles VI had agreed to name Henry V as his successor (the Treaty of Troyes). The Anglo-Burgundian regime took control of Paris and much of northern France. As it turned out, however, Henry V died two months before Charles VI.
* THE INVASIONS
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE RISE OF BRITAIN
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The Hundred Years War (page 2)
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The Hundred Years War (page 3)
ftsTitle
Joan of Arc, the national heroine of France. Born the daughter of a peasant in around 1412, she claimed to have heard the voices of Saints Michael, Catherine and Margaret urging her to rid France of the English invaders. She led a French army that defeated the English at Orleans in 1429, enabling the French dauphin to be crowned as Charles VII. Captured by the English, Joan was burnt as a heretic in 1431. She was made a saint in 1920.
The Hundred Years War (3 of 3)
Victory for France
In the early years of his reign Charles VII (1422-61) was confined to the lands south of the Loire (the kingdom of Bourges), but in 1429 a French revival, in part inspired by Joan of Arc, recaptured the initiative. By 1435 Duke Philip had swung back to the French royal side. For more than a decade the English held on stubbornly. Then suddenly, between 1450 and 1453, both Normandy and Gascony were lost forever.
From now on the monarchies of France and England, bound together in a troubled relationship since 1066, went their separate ways. In England the shock of the unexpected defeat led to civil war, with the Wars of the Roses (1455-85) between the houses of Lancaster and York. In France the monarchy garnered the rewards of victory, and of the reorganization of government that victory had entailed. Following the break-up of the Burgundian state after the death of Duke Charles `the Bold' (1467-77), the French kings once again enjoyed unrivaled power in France.
In the 14th century Europe was dealt a series of blows that made it the most calamitous century before our own. Early in the century appalling weather resulted in harvest failures and famine (1315-17). Then, in mid-century, bubonic plague - the Black Death - wiped out a significant proportion of the population; consequently demand for basic foodstuffs contracted sharply. For many landowners, accustomed to seeing their products eagerly sought after, this was a rude awakening. In some regions the miseries of war added to the sense of confusion. Criticism of the Church, the appearance of new heresies and a series of popular uprisings all added to the fundamental challenges faced by medieval society.
The Black Death
Bubonic plague originated in the Far East, and was brought to Europe in 1346-47 by Italian merchant ships from the ports of the Crimea on the Black Sea. As well as Ukrainian grain they carried the rats whose fleas spread the disease. The plague spread rapidly from the Mediterranean ports, reaching southern England in 1348. Victims developed fever and hard black buboes (swollen lymph nodes in the groin and armpits). More than half of those infected died. The pneumonic strain affected the lungs and was spread by coughing, making it more virulent in winter when the bubonic form was less active. This strain, and the septicemic variety - which attacked the bloodstream and brought death before symptoms could develop - were almost always fatal. Contemporary medicine knew no treatment for the terrifying affliction.
Death rates are difficult to calculate. In some pockets mortality was light, while small parts of southwest France, Flanders and northern Italy, and most of Silesia and Poland escaped the Black Death altogether. Elsewhere it is accepted that one third of the population perished in the 1348-49 epidemic. Recovery from even this severe blow might have been quick had it not been for recurrent epidemics in the 1360s and 70s. These attacked children in particular and so the future breeding stock was reduced. An age of population decline set in and plague became a fact of European life for more than three centuries.
Economic and psychological effects
The first onslaught of the Black Death was followed by labor shortages and disruption of production. Wages and prices both rose sharply. In England the government panicked and passed laws, such as the Statute of Laborers (1351), designed to freeze wages. However, there was a rapid recovery in the next few years. While unproductive marginal fields were abandoned there was no shortage of takers for vacant tenancies, an indication of overpopulation on the eve of the pestilence. Long-term effects were more marked. Consumption and production of basic foodstuffs declined as the population did. Within a few decades acute labor shortages meant that serfdom had to be abandoned and that real wages for rural laborers reached levels unmatched for centuries to come. For the surviving peasantry the plague was thus a blessing, inaugurating a golden age of improved conditions and relative plenty. The immediate psychological effect of the Black Death was to encourage survivors to live for the day. When it became clear that this was not the end of the world there were varied reactions. Some blamed the Jews, while others took to self-flagellation to mollify the anger of God. The ever-present threat of pestilence may be responsible for a mood of pessimism in the literature and art of the period. The plague was no respecter of rank. The Church suffered heavily, a consequence of its duties to the sick. The rich derived some protection from their better living conditions, but princes and great lords died of the plague as well as the poor.
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE REFORMATION
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Crisis in Europe (page 1)
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Crisis in Europe (page 2)
ftsTitle
Flagellants punishing themselves. At the time of the Black Death in Europe members of religious sects went through the streets whipping themselves in an attempt to take the sins of the people upon themselves and so save them from God's anger, which they believed was manifested by the plague.
Crisis in Europe (2 of 2)
War and taxation
Warfare in the 14th and 15th centuries was more widespread and intensive than in the previous two centuries. The Hundred Years War involved Scotland and Spain as well as France and England. In the 15th century Turkish advances turned southeast Europe into a zone of near permanent war.
The brunt of medieval warfare was born by civilians. Medieval armies obtained their supplies by plundering, and the passage of such an army through a district often meant famine. Where warfare became static, as along the borders of English-held Normandy and Gascony from the 1420s until the 1450s, uncultivated deserts were created. In times of peace unemployed soldiers continued to operate by plundering, now on their own accounts.
The costs of wages, armor, artillery and fortifications made war increasingly burdensome to the tax-paying population. Even successful kings like Charles V of France could overstretch the willingness of their subjects to pay for their wars. Aggressive wars fought on foreign soil could be profitable as well as prestigious - as Edward III and Henry V of England showed - but failure in war always brought political instability in its train.
Popular revolts
Economic change and the burdens of warfare inspired widespread challenges to authority. In Flemish and Italian towns clothworkers had economic grievances against their masters and wanted a greater say in government. The popular French revolt of 1358 followed the humiliating defeat of the French aristocracy at the Battle of Poitiers. This revolt was known as the Jacquerie, after the contemptuous name `Jacques Bonhomme' given to French peasants. The Peasants' Revolt in England (1381) was sparked off by the weight of taxation at a time when the Hundred Years War was going badly for the English. Its deep-rooted cause, however, was anger at the government's attempts to keep wages at pre-plague levels and to prevent men moving to lords offering better terms. Although these and similar revolts elsewhere in Europe were suppressed, in the long run the authorities found the pressure of changed economic circumstances harder to resist.
Anticlericalism and heresy
The wealth and worldliness of the Church attracted criticism from those who believed in a simpler and more devout way of life. Many ecclesiastics and laymen satisfied their desires for a purer life within the limits of the Church. Criticism was not incompatible with orthodoxy. English legislation in the mid-14th century to limit papal interference was based more on a notion that `the pope has become a Frenchman' - the popes at this time were resident in Avignon. Demands that the Church be stripped of its land were often inspired by a feeling that it did not pay its share of taxation. The authority and repute of the Church was further undermined by the Great Schism of 1378-1417, which saw first two, then three concurrent popes.
Some critics transgressed into heresy. The alternative Cathar (or Albigensian) Church in southern France had been broken in the 13th century by crusades and persecution. During the Great Schism two new heresies surfaced. In England the Oxford theologian John Wyclif (?1330-84) based his criticism on a fundamentalist study of Scripture, rejecting the authority of the papacy and the doctrine of transubstantiation in the Eucharist . His ideas were condemned but found favor with a few knights of Richard II's court, and they protected Wyclif's followers, who were insultingly known as `Lollards'. Only in 1401 were severe penalties prescribed for these English heretics. The reaction became hysterical when in 1414 Sir John Oldcastle organized an abortive plot to murder Henry V. The Lollards were only a tiny minority and Oldcastle's treason robbed them of their remaining support among the ruling classes. Despite persecution, however, they survived until the next century and the Reformation.
The Czech scholar Jan Hus (?1372-1415) shared some of Wyclif's ideas - indeed Hussites and Lollards corresponded - and rejected the authority of the Church. He was condemned and burned in 1415, but his ideas became far more of a threat than Wyclif's owing to their connection with Bohemian nationalism. Under the able command of John Zizka the Hussites defeated crusaders from Germany, Austria and Hungary. Their resistance ended only in 1436 after a compact that recognized both their distinctive beliefs and the fact that many nobles had used the troubles to get their hands on Church estates.
A century of calamities?
It is important not to exaggerate the effect of the 14th-century crisis. It has already been said that life may have been better for the survivors of the shocks of the 14th century. They almost certainly enjoyed a more varied diet; this was because farmers, faced by a declining demand for grain as the numbers of mouths fell, grew vegetables instead, or turned to livestock. In the wake of natural and man-made calamities European society was to show great powers of recovery in the 15th century - the century of the printing press and of overseas exploration and expansion.
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE REFORMATION
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Medieval and Renaissance Economy, Society and Exploration (page 1)
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An agricultural scene in the early 16th century.
This painting depicting July is one of a series of the 12 months attributed to the school of Master Bering of Bruges.
Medieval and Renaissance Economy and Society (1 of 3)
The medieval world was essentially a rural one. It depended on a hard-working peasantry, fair weather and good harvests. At first, in the centuries after the fall of Rome, both people and money were in short supply. There then followed a long period of economic, commercial and population growth. This growth was slow at first - in the 9th and 10th centuries - but then accelerated through the 12th and 13th centuries. The catastrophe of the Black Death brought a century of uncertainty before expansion was resumed in the later 15th century.
Even though the population of Europe in 1600 may have been no greater than in 1300, the basic fact remains that for most of the Middle Ages the population of Europe was a growing one. This meant pressure to bring more land into cultivation and to improve the processing and distribution of basic necessities: food, fuel and clothing. Water mills proliferated, and in the 12th century a new invention, the windmill, provided a supplementary source of power. Bulk-carrying ships were developed and, on land, improved harness design enabled the much faster horse cart to replace the ox cart.
Slaves, serfs and freemen
Throughout these centuries the greater part of the work was done by small tenant farmers (i.e. peasants) and their servants - though initially, as in the ancient world, slave labor was employed on many estates. By 1200, however, slavery and the slave trade had both died out in Europe north of the Alps. Some tenants were obliged by the terms of their tenure to work their lord's land as well as their own; those whose obligations were particularly burdensome tended to be called serfs or villeins, and after the demise of slavery it was these men who were regarded as `unfree'. Then the long period of labor shortage following the Black Death in the 14th century led to the end of serfdom. From then on virtually all tenants either owed a share of their harvest or a money rent; as the volume of coinage in circulation increased, the latter became more common. Thus in northwestern Europe the Middle Ages witnessed the end of both slavery and serfdom - two important moments in the history of liberty.
of liberty.
* CRISIS IN EUROPE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
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Medieval and Renaissance Economy, Society and Exploration (page 2)
ftsTitle
Medieval and Renaissance Economy and Society (2 of 3)
The `feudal system'
Most of Europe was dominated by landlords throughout these centuries. Small local landlords owed rent or service or both to greater landlords, and so on all the way up the social hierarchy to the ruler. At each level tenants owed the kind of service - financial, administrative or military - appropriate to their status. Thus tenants of knightly status might be expected to perform `knight service' in return for fiefs, estates granted them by their lords. Historians have often called this kind of society `feudal' - from the latin feudum meaning a fief - though neither the word nor the concept `feudal' existed in the Middle Ages.
Moreover the `feudal system' was not a static one. From the 12th and 13th centuries onwards lords increasingly secured men's service by paying them in cash. At the same time the demand for administrators rose sharply - for men who were both literate and numerate. To meet this demand schools were founded all over Europe. For men who gave their lords good service there were plenty of opportunities to rise in the world.
Town life
From the 11th century onwards a rising population led to a massive growth in the number and size of towns throughout Europe, most of them functioning principally as local markets. Most towns were small by today's standards - though by 1300 London may have had a population of 100 000 and Paris twice as many.
Townspeople struggled to win certain freedoms, notably the right to supervise their own markets and to elect their own magistrates. Successful towns obtained charters from the king - in England and Scotland such towns became known as boroughs. A characteristic feature of towns everywhere was the existence within them of a number of associations and clubs, known variously to contemporaries as guilds, fraternities, companies or crafts. Some of them were based on particular trades or crafts and were responsible for regulating their members' economic activities, but they also performed a wide range of social, religious and charitable functions.
In the more urbanized parts of Europe many towns - such as Milan, Florence, Cologne and Bruges - were able to become communes, self-governing municipalities capable of independent political action. This was particularly so in northern Italy where a fiercely competitive society of rival city-states, not unlike the society of Classical Greece, had emerged by the 13th century. This was the seedbed of the Italian Renaissance.
The commercial revolution
By the 13th century Italian businessmen had developed a sophisticated system of credit finance and were acting as international bankers. These facilities helped to make Italy the hub of international trade. Venice, Pisa and Genoa fought each other for control of the highly lucrative commerce of the Mediterranean. Italian merchants like Marco Polo's father traveled overland to China, but it was to be the increasing volume of seaborne trade between the Mediterranean and Northern Europe that led to the crucial improvements in ship design that made possible the voyages of discovery.
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* CRISIS IN EUROPE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
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Voyages of discoverylegaH
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Medieval and Renaissance Economy, Society and Exploration (page 3)
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The first landing of Columbus in the New World. On 12 October 1492 he landed on San Salvador Island in the Bahamas, and is so credited with the discovery of America. So convinced was Columbus that he would reach Asia that he took along a man who spoke some Arabic, in case they met the `grand Khan'. Even when he reached the West Indies, Columbus continued to sail in search of Japan - which he thought he had found when he discovered Cuba.
Medieval and Renaissance Economy and Society (3 of 3)
THE VOYAGES of DISCOVERY
Marco Polo (c. 1254-1324) Trade between Europe and China along the Silk Route had long been established, and in 1260-69 Marco Polo's father and uncle made a trading expedition there. Marco Polo accompanied them on their second expedition, reaching China in 1275. There he entered the service of the emperor, Kublai Khan, and remained in China until 1292.
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) Son of John 1 of Portugal, Henry was the leading patron of Portuguese exploration in the early 15th century. By his death his ships had discovered the Cape Verde Islands, and advanced down the west coast of Africa as far as Sierra Leone.
Zheng He (or Cheng Ho; died c. 1433) In the early 15th century China was also expanding its horizons and Admiral Zheng He led several expeditions to India, Arabia and the coast of East Africa. At this point, however, the Chinese government decided against further exploration.
Bartolomeu Dias (?1450-1500) In 1488 the Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and could report that a sea route to the spices and other wealth of the East now lay open.
Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) Setting out from Portugal in 1497, da Gama followed a slightly different course to that of Dias and reached Calicut on the southwest coast of India, returning home in 1499. The route from Portugal to the East was now confirmed.
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) Because the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus believed that the world was much smaller than it is, he was confident that he could reach the East by sailing west. It had been known for centuries that the world is round, but for a long time Columbus' schemes were rejected by experts who had a much more accurate idea of the actual size of the globe. Not until 1492 was he given the backing of the Spanish Crown. His flotilla of three ships led by the Santa Maria reached the Bahamas in 33 days. On subsequent voyages Columbus reached the American mainland. He died still convinced, however, that he had reached the East, or the Indies, hence the name `West Indies'.
John Cabot (c. 1450-?98) An Italian navigator in the service of Henry VII of England, Cabot discovered Cape Breton Island in 1497, and is sometimes credited with the discovery of North America - though the Vikings had reached there, via Iceland and Greenland, five hundred years earlier.
Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-1521) A Portuguese navigator sponsored by Spain, in 1519 Magellan set off with five ships to seek a western route to the East Indies. He negotiated the strait named after him between Tierra del Fuego and the South American mainland. The expedition crossed the Pacific and reached the East Indies in 1521, where Magellan was killed. Only one ship returned to Spain in 1522, so completing the first circumnavigation of the world.
the world.
* CRISIS IN EUROPE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
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Medieval and Renaissance Culture (page 1)
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The medieval nobleman was expected to be able to play chess as well as he could fight, hunt, dance and play music. This scene shows Otto IV of Brandenburg (1266-1309) with a lady.
Medieval and Renaissance Culture (1 of 3)
After the fall of the western Roman Empire, people in Western Europe gradually lost touch with the centers of culture in the eastern Mediterranean. Much of the learning of the ancient world was lost. What survived the `Dark Ages' - the 7th to 10th centuries - did so because it was preserved in monasteries. For centuries formal education was not much more than a by-product of religion.
In the 12th and 13th centuries all that changed. Through a variety of channels, classical learning (in philosophy, law and the sciences) was recovered. Schools and universities, medical schools and hospitals were founded. At the same time there was a new architecture - Gothic - and a remarkable flowering of vernacular literature. In the most urbanized region in Europe - northern Italy - a rather different style took root, and by the 16th century Renaissance Italy was setting the fashion for the rest of Europe, a development assisted by a powerful new invention: the printing press.
The monastic centuries
Christianity was adopted as the official religion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD, and Christians found that they had become part of the imperial establishment - an experience which was not to the liking of all of them. Many preferred to turn their backs on the material comforts and pleasures that society now offered. In Egypt and Syria - the most urbanized and prosperous parts of the Roman world - so many followed this course that hundreds of new communities dedicated to religious self-denial were established, often in the desert. These were the first monasteries. During the 5th and 6th centuries this style of religious life caught on in the West, and while the Roman cultural world collapsed, monasteries survived, islands of stability, quiet, and traditional learning.
For four or five hundred years there were few men (except in Italy, where there always seem to have been town schools) who learned to read and write anywhere but in a monastery school. Moreover, the accumulation of pious gifts over the centuries meant that many monasteries became great landowning corporations, and could afford to employ the finest builders, sculptors and artists. In these circumstances it was probably inevitable that early medieval culture should come to have a distinctly ecclesiastical tinge.
Schools and universities
By the 12th century Western Europe was a more populous and more complex society. All over Europe, teachers began to set up new schools, including some in quite small towns and villages. The `lost' learning of the ancient world was translated out of Arabic into Latin and so made generally available to European scholars.
It was in this receptive and expansionist educational environment that the earliest universities - Paris, Bologna and Oxford - were established (by around 1200), and they set a trend that was to last for centuries. By 1500 more than 70 more universities had been founded, among them Cambridge, Prague, Heidelberg and St Andrews. Most students were clerks - in other words, they were nominally churchmen. Relatively few, however, chose to become theologians or parish priests. Most studied for the `arts' degree; of those who went on to take a higher degree most chose one of what were known as the `lucrative sciences' - law or medicine. Their ambitions were professional and worldly.
* THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
* THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE
* PRINTING
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
* THE REFORMATION
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE ART AND ARCHITECTURE
* PLAINSONG AND POLYPHONY
* DANCE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE LITERATURE
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Medieval and Renaissance Culture (page 2)
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A 16th-century joust in a German town. Jousting in the Middle Ages was one of the main attractions of the tournaments of knights. Originally the joust was a single combat on horseback with sword and lance and often ended in the death of one of the knights. The Church continually condemned the sport and by the 15th century jousts were over when one of the combatants was unseated.
Medieval and Renaissance Culture (2 of 3)
Chivalry and secular culture
Outside the Church there had always of course been another culture - even in the `Dark Ages'. The Church might have been a rich patron, but the nobles were even richer. However, in the early Middle Ages the culture of the European aristocracy was essentially an illiterate one. Except in Anglo-Saxon England, its ideas and values were rarely fixed in writing and in consequence we know little about them.
But the vernacular literature of the 12th and 13th centuries throws a whole new flood of light on the upper levels of secular society. It shows us the world of chivalry - a society that valued knightly prowess, courage, loyalty, generosity and courtesy (particularly when in the company of ladies). It was a very courtly world. The ideal nobleman was expected not only to be a warrior and huntsman, but also a fine musician, a graceful dancer, an eloquent and shrewd speaker in several languages, and to possess polished manners. The idea of the all-round `Renaissance man', embodied in The Book of the Courtier by Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529), had in fact been around long before the Renaissance, and one of the reasons for the book's success across Europe was that it was preaching - and with rare eloquence - to an audience that had been converted for centuries.
In the 12th and 13th centuries it became normal for members of the upper classes - gentry as well as business people, women as well as men - to be able to read. Many of them employed clerks to do their writing for them, just as businessmen today employ secretaries. By the 15th century a reading public existed that was large enough to absorb the enormous increase in books produced by the new printing presses (see below).
Humanism and the Renaissance
In the 14th century, the Italian poet Petrarch (1304-74) inspired a new kind of enthusiasm for the writings of ancient Greece and Rome - an enthusiasm for their style as well as for their content. Following this lead, a diverse group of scholars, known as the humanists, came to regard classical texts as models for public speaking, writing and conduct. Initially based in northern Italy, by 1500 humanist ideas began to spread to northern Europe, where Erasmus (see below) was the most important scholar.
Because the humanists laid weight on being able to speak and write like the Roman orator and writer Cicero, this tended to make them contemptuous of all those who had not even tried to do so. Thus they popularized the idea of the `Dark Ages', a period of supposed barbarism stretching between the ancient world and their own time.
Undoubtedly their enthusiasm for antiquity led them to discover previously unknown classical texts, notably some works by the Greek philosopher Plato. By translating such texts into Latin - for knowledge of Greek remained rare throughout the Renaissance - they made them more widely available. Whether their enthusiasm for classical models led them to a new or `modern' view of the world and of man's place within it, is a question that historians still debate. In 15th-century Florence, humanist language was used to encourage active citizenship and loyalty to the state - but these were qualities of which rulers everywhere approved. Although humanism did not involve a rejection of Christian doctrine, it did undoubtedly focus on man's - as opposed to God's - role in the world, but so also did the `old-fashioned' secular ideals of chivalry and good lordship.
The importance of printing
In 1450 the first printing press was set up at Mainz in Germany by Johannes Gutenberg (?1398-1468). The new technique spread rapidly, particularly in the urbanized regions: 90% of European book production before 1500 was concentrated in Italy and the Rhineland. In 1475 William Caxton (c. 1422-91) introduced the technique into England. Printing - pictures as well as words - meant that writers could reach a much larger international audience than ever before.
When the Florentine, Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), argued in his book The Prince that the need to ensure the survival of the state justified acts that otherwise might be regarded as immoral, he was not doing much more than laying bare the way governments had always acted - but in the new world of the printed book this was enough to make his name synonymous with duplicity. More importantly, when the Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) edited the Greek New Testament, and when in letters and tracts such as In Praise of Folly he called for Church reform, his words, now in print, reached minds and hearts that earlier writers had failed to reach. This anticipated the way in which printing was to play a crucial role in the spread of the Reformation.
Chivalry was a code of conduct that laid down how men were expected to behave when at court or when jousting. However, when at war the leaders of the cult of chivalry were as professional and ruthless as soldiers anywhere. They had no `chivalrous' objections to the use of new weapons, such as the 12th-century crossbow and 14th-century gun.
Throughout this period battles were rare and war largely revolved around control of strong points, castles or towns. Thus an important aspect of the great rebuilding that took place in the 12th and 13th centuries was the replacement of basic earthwork and timber fortifications (including the motte-and-bailey castle) by vastly more expensive stone walls. High stone walls and towers were designed to counter the high-trajectory siege catapults of the period.
But from the 1370s onwards the advent of effective siege guns - capable of delivering a massive horizontal blow - presented military architects with a new problem. Their solution was the bastion. It was low, and was built of rubble and brick so that it absorbed cannon shot, instead of fracturing on impact as stone did. Above all it was itself a gun platform, enabling the defenders to hit back at any attacker.
Everywhere in Europe - though rarely in Britain - the old town defenses were pulled down and a new wide ring of bastions built. Every European city from the Baltic to North Africa took on a new appearance, and wherever Europeans settled overseas, from Havana to Goa, they built towns on this new plan.
* THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
* THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE
* PRINTING
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
* THE REFORMATION
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE ART AND ARCHITECTURE
* PLAINSONG AND POLYPHONY
* DANCE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE LITERATURE
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Medieval and Renaissance Culture (page 3)
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The Reformation (page 1)
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The St Bartholomew's Day Massacre of French Protestants, 1572. The massacre was ordered by the French queen mother, Catherine de' Medici. Some 3000 Protestants were killed in Paris, and many more in the provinces. This event was just one of the many atrocities carried out by both Protestants and Catholics in the turbulent century following the Reformation.
The Reformation (1 of 4)
The Reformation was the outcome of dissatisfaction with abuses within the Roman Catholic Church, and also with the role of the clergy and with the direction of the Church. The close link which often developed between Protestant reformers and secular rulers resulted in the development of national churches and the appropriation of Church property.
The publication of the Bible in various national languages was also a very important effect of the Reformation. The success of the reformers transformed the Catholic Church. From the late 16th century a revitalized Catholic Church was making great efforts to recover lost ground. However, the success of the Counter-Reformation depended ultimately on the power of Catholic rulers. They made a determined effort to turn the clock back in the early 17th century, but with only partial success. Protestantism for its part had lost much of its dynamism by 1650 - but had survived.
The background
The desire for reform was not new. The weakness of the papacy in the late 14th and early 15th centuries had stimulated the progress of Lollardy in England and Hussitism in Bohemia, both of which anticipated the Protestant Reformation. However, their success was limited and the late 15th century saw a revival of papal authority.
The popes had St Peter's rebuilt so that Rome should be a fitting capital, and they paid for this and other projects by exploiting their headship of the Church to raise money throughout Europe. They sold indulgences (remissions of the penance imposed on confessed sinners), dispensations and cardinal-ships, and at the same time resisted calls for reform in an increasingly corrupt and secular Church. In Germany this provoked a strong anti-Italian feeling based on the belief that the papacy was extorting great sums from the Germans.
The humanists' new scholarly work on the texts of the Bible drew attention to the great gulf between the early and contemporary Church, and gave added strength to the growing hostility to the clergy and the papacy. The invention of printing played a crucial role in the spread of the ideas both of the humanists and of the new reformers.
Martin Luther, painted by Lucas Cranach in 1526. Luther made public his criticisms of the Roman Catholic Church in 1517, when he nailed his `Ninety-five Theses' to the church door at Wittenberg. The main statement of belief of the Lutheran Churches, the 1530 Augsburg Confession, was in fact drawn up by Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560), who took over the leadership of the German Reformation from Luther.
rom Luther.
The Reformation (2 of 4)
Martin Luther and Protestantism
In 1517 Martin Luther (1483-1547), a German monk and theologian, published his opposition to indulgences and other abuses in the Church. Attempts to silence him only clarified his ideas. Luther believed that the foundation of all faith must be the Bible, and that all people should have access to it, not just those who understood Latin. Those religious doctrines and practices not founded in Scripture, such as monastic orders and the cult of Mary and the saints, he regarded as abuses; only faith in God brought salvation. Luther also denied the special status of the clergy administering the sacraments: to him the priesthood comprised all true believers, and each believer stood alone and equal before God. Following his excommunication in 1520 Luther rejected papal authority.
Luther's protest, spread by the new printing presses and by preachers, was popular in Germany. The poor thought it meant freedom from some of their burdens. However, Luther urged the brutal suppression of the Peasants' Revolt (1525) by the German princes, whom he needed to defend the Reformation against the hostility of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. Yet Charles's commitments elsewhere prevented him from having time or strength enough to root out Protestantism in Germany. In 1555 he had to agree to the Peace of Augsburg, which allowed each prince, Lutheran or Catholic, to decide the religion of his subjects.
By that time Lutheran Churches had been established in a number of states in Germany, and in Sweden and Denmark, while the new state Church emerging in England was influenced by Lutheran doctrines. A number of rulers ordered Reformation in their states because they profited from the seizure of Church property, and increased their authority by creating a clergy subject to them and not to Rome.
Calvin and Calvinism
Reform was also effected in Zurich by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531). But the most influential of the other reformers was John Calvin (1509-56), a French lawyer. Calvin, like Luther, based his ideas firmly on Scripture, but went beyond Luther in believing that salvation was predestined or determined by God. He also went further than Luther in rejecting religious ceremonial and imagery.
Calvin reformed both the Church and the government of Geneva, ensuring a closer link between the two and a greater supervision of the religious and moral life of its citizens. Geneva provided a model for Calvinists, who in the late 16th century took the lead in the reform movement. However, their different beliefs often meant conflict with Lutherans as well as with Catholics.
In Scotland, a successful revolt against the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots was followed by reform of the Church on Calvinist lines by John Knox (?1514-72). In France the Huguenots (as French Calvinists were known) became involved in the rivalries of the noble factions in the French Wars of Religion (1559-98). The strength of the Huguenots fell consider-ably after the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre of their leaders (1572). Yet they were strong enough to obtain toleration in 1598 under the Edict of Nantes.
Calvinist resistance contributed to the success of the Dutch revolt against Philip II, a Calvinist Church being set up in the Dutch Republic. Calvinist Churches were also established in Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, and parts of Germany (where Calvinism was not included in the settlement of 1555). Not surprisingly, Calvinism was associated with rebellion.
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* CRISIS IN EUROPE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* THE RISE OF BRITAIN
* WORLD CHRISTIANITY
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p408-3
The Reformation (3 of 4)
The Counter-Reformation
The success of the Reformation increased the pressure for a council to reform the Roman Catholic Church from within. Such a council was indeed established, and met at Trent between 1541 and 1563.
Yet the Council of Trent made few concessions to Protestant criticisms. Instead it restated traditional doctrine regarding the sacraments, the Bible and papal supremacy. It also declared that Catholics should be better instructed in their faith, and provided for a trained clergy to do this.
The Council was followed by a great missionary effort to recover the areas lost to Protestantism. A leading part in this was played by the Jesuits (the Society of Jesus), founded by a Spaniard, Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556). The Jesuits were distinguished both as missionaries in Europe, America and Asia, and as teachers in their European colleges. As royal confessors they urged Catholic rulers to ignore Protestant rights as a limitation on their power.
This reflected the dependence of the Counter-Reformation on the support of monarchs such as Mary of England (1553-58), who tried to recatholicize her kingdom, and Philip II of Spain.
In Spain, as elsewhere in Catholic Europe, the Inquisition investigated suspected heretics, passing serious offenders to the secular authorities for punishment. It also enforced the `Index' of books whose content was regarded as heretical and not to be read by Catholics. The Index was constantly revised, and was not abandoned until 1966.
The Thirty Years War
The religious tensions that had built up over the previous 60 years or more finally erupted in a complex series of struggles known as the Thirty Years War.
The war began with a revolt in 1618 in Bohemia against the anti-Protestant and centralizing policies of the Austrian Habsburg emperor, Ferdinand II. By 1620 this revolt had been crushed, but the struggle quickly became entangled with wider European conflicts.
Spain, the ally of the Austrian Habsburgs, resumed its war with the Dutch in 1621. During the course of the war the Spanish occupied the Palatinate - in western Germany - whose ruler had led the Bohemian revolt. By 1629 Habsburg power seemed dominant in Germany, and in that year Ferdinand II attempted to reimpose the religious settlement of 1555, thus ending the unofficial toleration of Calvinism. Fear of Habsburg and Catholic power led Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden (1611-32), to invade Germany in 1630. After some brilliant successes he was killed at the battle of Letzen in 1632. The war was now becoming an essentially political struggle, especially with the entry of France, the greatest anti-Habsburg power, in 1635. The growing difficulties of both the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs led in 1648 to the Peace of Westphalia, which confirmed the 1555 Augsburg settlement, and now included the Calvinists. In parts of Germany up to a third - and in a few areas up to two thirds - of the population may have died during the war, mainly through disease and famine brought about by economic disruption. The struggle between France and Spain went on until 1659, but the age of religious, or partly religious, wars was over. The religious divisions of Europe were now fixed essentially as they are today.
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* CRISIS IN EUROPE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* THE RISE OF BRITAIN
* WORLD CHRISTIANITY
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The Reformation (page 3)
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p408-4
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The Reformation (page 4)
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Three German witches being burnt alive in 1555.
The Reformation (4 of 4)
THE EUROPEAN WITCH CRAZE
The fierce religious struggles of the Reformation stimulated even further the growing obsession with witchcraft. Witchcraft - defined as making a pact with the devil to obtain magic powers - was first declared a heresy in 1484 by Pope Innocent VIII, who appointed two inquisitors to stamp it out in Germany.
Between about 1580 and 1650 the number of witch trials rocketed throughout western Europe. Both Roman Catholic and Protestant theologians identified witchcraft with active heresy. Indeed witchhunts were used by Calvinists in Scotland in the 1590s and Catholics in Poland from the 1650s to purge their opponents. In Catholic countries where there was no real Protestant threat the Inquisition's witchcraft cases were often no more than efforts to stamp out superstitions such as the use of love potions. The witch craze died down in western Europe from about 1650 as fierce religious warfare ended and Protestant and Counter-Reformation teaching eradicated pre-Christian beliefs. However, persecution of suspected witches was by no means over: 19 people were executed in Massachusetts in 1692 following the infamous Salem witchcraft trials.
* CHRISTIANITY RESURGENT
* CRISIS IN EUROPE
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* THE RISE OF BRITAIN
* WORLD CHRISTIANITY
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The Spanish and Portuguese Empires (page 1)
ftsTitle
Hernan Cortez, a Spanish conquistador, led a private expedition to Mexico in 1519. He was reluctantly received by the Aztec ruler Montezuma at Tenochtitlan and was forced to retreat when the Aztecs revolted. He returned and laid siege to the city the following year. In 1921, already weakened by smallpox brought by the Spanish from Cuba, the Aztecs surrendered.
The Spanish and Portuguese Empires (1 of 3)
The 16th century saw the creation of the first large colonial empires by European powers. The empires of Spain and Portugal resulted from their sponsorship of the great voyages of discovery. In the case of Spain its empire would not have been created without the achievement of political unity at home. This came about in 1469, when Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon. With his support she restored order and royal authority in Castile. In 1492 they completed the conquest of the Moorish kingdom of Granada, bringing to a conclusion the Reconquista, the reconquest of Islamic Spain.
The achievement of Ferdinand and Isabella rested on the cooperation of their two realms. Aragon feared being swallowed up by the far richer Castile and made little contribution to Spain's subsequent greatness. Yet the union was held together, first by Ferdinand and Isabella, and then from 1516 by the Habsburgs, initially in the person of Charles V. Charles inherited both realms and was also elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. Spain's incorporation into the Habsburg Empire offered it the opportunity to use its own resources and those of its American empire on a wider stage. Spain assumed the role of leading power in Europe until well into the 17th century.
Spain and Portugal divide the world
Following Columbus's successful voyage of 1492, Isabella needed to establish her right to colonize the Americas. After arbitration by the pope, Spain and Portugal came to an agreement at the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1493. All lands west of an imaginary north-to-south line drawn 370 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands were to go to Spain, and all those east of it to Portugal. The result of this was that Portugal got Brazil, and Spain virtually all of the rest of South and Central America, and even parts of North America.
The Spanish impact on native life
Before settlement of the Americas could begin, the existing native empires had to be subdued. This was the achievement of the conquistadors. In a short time and against vastly greater numbers - but aided by an overwhelming technological superiority - Cortez overthrew the Aztec empire in Mexico (1519-21), Alvardo conquered the Mayas in Yucatan (1524), and Pizarro subdued the Inca empire in Peru (1531-33).
Spanish colonization accelerated, and the native Indians were subjected to a colonial administration headed by two viceroys - in Mexico and Peru - responsible to the king in Spain. The Indians were obliged to work on the Spaniards' lands and in the gold and silver mines. The Spanish missionaries destroyed the Indians' temples and idols, established mission churches, and began a process of wholesale, sometimes forcible, conversion. The Roman Catholic Church thereby acquired massive numbers of believers in the Americas. The disruption of the Indians' way of life, together with the introduction of diseases to which they were not immune, contributed to a massive decline in their numbers - from perhaps 25 million in Mexico alone in 1519 to just over 1 million in 1600.
Trade, gold and silver
Gold had been the original attraction of the Americas for the conquistadors, and tales of El Dorado, a fabled city rich in gold, continued to fuel exploration. However, silver soon made up 90% of the precious metals sent back to Spain. These metals went as taxes and to pay for the goods the colonists received from Spain. Spain tried to prevent foreigners trading with their colonies, but this proved difficult. The silver stimulated the Spanish economy, and then that of the whole of Europe, contributing to the general inflation in the 16th century. However, in the 17th century, colonial self-sufficiency and economic recession, combined with a fall in silver exports, all contributed to a depression in the European economy.
Portugal's empire in Africa and Asia
Portugal's empire was much more dispersed than that of Spain. Limited to a few coastal settlements in Brazil, the Portuguese also had a handful of forts and `trading' factories in West Africa and along the Mozambique coast, and a scattering of settlements between India and the Pacific.
This pattern reflected the importance of trade with the East. Portugal drew from the East an impressive range of spices, which then attracted high prices in Europe. The Portuguese also obtained gold from China and silver from Japan. Some of these goods were traded locally, but many were carried back to Lisbon, and on to Antwerp for European distribution. Since the only way to Portugal from the East was round the Cape of Good Hope, the forts and factories along the African coast protected this trade. Africa also provided gold - particularly from the Gold Coast (now Ghana) - and slaves. The latter were especially valued as laborer the developing sugar plantations of Brazil.
The number of White settlers in both the Portuguese and Spanish Empires was always far inferior to the number of non-Whites, but many Whites, including missionaries, were attracted to the colonies. The Portuguese, like the Spanish, condoned conversion of the native populations by force, so it is not clear how genuine the conversions were.
The Battle of Lepanto, 7 October 1571. It was off Lepanto (the western Greek port of Navpaktos) that a combined Spanish and Venetian fleet defeated the Ottoman Turks, so preventing Turkish expansion into the western Mediterranean. The Christian fleet was commanded by Don John of Austria, the half-brother of Philip II of Spain. Among the combatants was Miguel de Cervantes - the creator of Don Quixote - who lost an arm during the fighting. The battle was the last great naval engagement involving oar-powered galleys. This painting by Andrea Micheli hangs in the Doge's Palace, Venice.
The Spanish and Portuguese Empires (2 of 3)
Spanish power in Europe
In 1556 Charles V abdicated. His brother had long ruled the Habsburg lands in Austria, and now kept them. Everything else went to Charles's son, Philip II (who ruled 1556-98). Spain now dominated much of Italy and therefore the whole of the western Mediterranean. It also surrounded France - and threatened England - through its possession of the Netherlands. Spain also led the Christian fight against the Turks at sea: it was a largely Spanish fleet that defeated the Turks at Lepanto in 1571, although this did not end Turkish power in the Mediterranean.
Following the death of the king of Portugal in battle in Morocco in 1578, Philip added the Portuguese Empire to that of Spain. Apart from making Spain a major power in the East, this made Philip much stronger in Europe. The Spanish Empire in 1600 was the biggest the world had ever seen.
Spain's great military strength was used in a long struggle to suppress the revolt of the Protestant Netherlands from 1567. However, Philip was unable to devote himself wholly to ending the revolt, and his enemies aided the rebels in order to weaken Spain.
The failure of Philip's Armada against England in 1588 meant that these distractions continued. Warfare on this scale was too expensive even with the silver of the Americas, and Spain was unable to beat the Dutch rebels.
Mount Potos (now in Bolivia) became famous after rich deposits of silver were discovered in 1545. The Spanish used native Indian labor to extract the silver, which was shipped to Spain. The wind-powered stamping mill in the foreground was used to process ore.
The Spanish and Portuguese Empires (3 of 3)
The decline of Spain
The recovery of France from the weakness inflicted by the Wars of Religion proved disastrous for Spain. Spanish troops proved very successful in the first half of the Thirty Years War, but their victories ended after France's entry into the war in 1635. At the same time Castile was less able to carry the cost of empire alone, largely owing to decline in its population, agriculture and industry, and to the American recession. Yet the non-Castilian realms refused to shoulder more of the costs. Catalonia revolted in 1640 when Castile attempted to pass on some of the burden, as did Portugal, whose empire Spain had proved incapable of defending.
Spain recovered Catalonia but was obliged to recognize Dutch (1648) and Portuguese (1668) independence. Portugal then rebuilt its colonial empire around Brazil.
Although Spain continued to decline, the support of other states, now concerned to resist France rather than Spain, meant that the Spanish Empire was still vast enough to be worth fighting over when the last Habsburg king of Spain died (the War of the Spanish Succession).
THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO
Hernan Cortez (1485-1547), like many other conquistadors, was a younger son of an impoverished noble family and was inspired by a variety of motives: he wanted to spread the faith but he also wanted to make his fortune.
In 1519 he led a private expedition to explore the interior of Mexico, accompanied by only 600 volunteers. He burnt his boats before marching inland towards the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, taking the ships' guns with him. Cortez was aided by Indian tribes who resented paying tribute to the Aztecs, particularly their demand for human sacrifices.
The Aztec leader, Montezuma, discouraged Cortez from entering Tenochtitlan, which was built on a lake and entered across a causeway. But the Spaniards insisted, attracted by the presents of gold they had received. Reluctantly, Montezuma allowed them in. The Aztecs revolted, murdering Montezuma and attacking Cortez, who was forced to fight his way out, losing a third of his men.
The Spaniards then besieged Tenochtitlan. Cortez cut off all supplies and built boats on which he mounted his guns. The guns bombarded the town and protected the Spanish troops as they crossed the causeway. The Aztecs - already weakened by the smallpox brought by the Spaniards from Cuba - surrendered. Within two years of the Spaniards coming, a civilization had collapsed.
The defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588 (right). Among the commanders of the English fleet were Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, under the Lord High Admiral, Howard of Effingham. After their defeat at Gravelines, the Spanish fleet tried to escape round Scotland and Ireland, suffering further losses by storm and shipwreck. Of the 130 Spanish ships that originally set out, only 86 returned. (Painting attributed to Nicholas Hilliard, Society of Apothecaries, London)
`$:$The Rise of Britain (1 of 2)
Between the end of the 15th and the middle of the 18th centuries England became Great Britain. By 1763 Britain had emerged as a leading power in Europe and the world, with a vast colonial empire. This position was achieved by the development of political stability after the upheavals of the 16th and 17th centuries. Stability was associated with the establishment of a Protestant, parliamentary monarchy from 1688. The achievement of effective control over the previously independent realms of Scotland and Ireland (Wales had been subjugated in the 13th century) contributed to the success of that new system.
England's future success was not obvious when Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at Bosworth in 1485, so becoming Henry VII (1485-1509). It remained to be seen whether Henry could end the cycle of civil war known as the Wars of the Roses, which had started in 1455. These wars did little real damage to the wealth of England, but reduced the prestige and authority of the Crown, which had often proved incapable of enforcing obedience from the great nobles. The Crown had become the plaything of factions, being claimed by the Houses of York (the white rose) and Lancaster (the red rose). Scotland remained an independent kingdom inclined to ally with France against England.
The early Tudor achievement
Henry married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV, ensuring that their children were heirs of both Lancaster and York. He defeated Yorkist attempts to seize his throne, and gained foreign support by a policy of marriage alliances and peace. Henry had no police or army and could restore royal authority only by channeling patronage (grants of land and offices) to those who obeyed him.
Henry VII's success was such that Henry VIII (1509-47) succeeded without question to a rich and powerful Crown, financially independent thanks to Henry VII's careful exploitation of the Crown's extensive landed estates. Henry VIII revived the traditions of the Hundred Years War, invading France in 1513. In his absence the Scots invaded England, but were defeated at Flodden. The man who organized the French expedition, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (1473-1530), became Henry's chief minister.
The English Reformation
Henry VIII's wife, Catherine of Aragon, had five children, but only Princess Mary survived. The security of the Tudor dynasty required that Henry be followed by a son. The pope, not wishing to offend Catherine's uncle, Emperor Charles V, refused Henry a divorce. Henry therefore declared himself Supreme Head of the Church in England, which then granted him a divorce. Henry and his new chief minister, Thomas Cromwell (1485-1540), then dissolved the monasteries - thereby increasing the landed revenue available to the Crown - and reformed the Church. Opposition to Henry's policies was brutally suppressed. In the interests of security, Wales was incorporated into the English Crown (1536, 1543), Henry was declared king of Ireland (1541), and efforts were made in the 1540s to subject the Scots.
Under Edward VI (1547-53), Henry VIII's son by his third wife, Jane Seymour, the Reformation continued. However, Edward was succeeded by his half-sister, Mary (1553-58), who hoped to restore Catholicism and papal authority in England, burning nearly 300 Protestants in the process. Mary might have been successful, but died in 1558 leaving no children to carry on the work. She was succeeded by Elizabeth I (1558-1603), Henry's daughter by his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth re-established the Church of England (also known as the Anglican Church) on the basis of the Thirty-Nine Articles (1559), disappointing those `Puritans' who wished for a purer Protestant Church. Fear of Spanish power led her to support the Dutch rebels against Philip II. Following the discovery of plots against Elizabeth's life by Philip and Mary Queen of Scots (held prisoner by Elizabeth since 1570), Mary was executed in 1586. In 1588 Philip attempted the conquest of England by means of the Armada. It failed, but Philip continued to threaten Elizabeth, aiding the Catholic Irish chiefs who rebelled against Elizabeth in 1599. Ireland was not reconquered until 1603, the year of Elizabeth's death. Elizabeth never married and so left no heir. Instead she left the Crown to her Stuart relative, James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England (1603-25).
Parliament, the Stuarts, and the English Civil War
Elizabeth's wars, and the great inflation of the 16th century, eroded the financial achievement of the early Tudors. The Crown sought Parliamentary help since Parliament's consent was necessary for full-scale taxation. This gave MPs the opportunity to criticize the Crown, and to attempt to influence its policy. The ending of the war with Spain by James I did not end these problems, but the situation was far worse under James's son Charles I (1625-49).
Charles expected to be obeyed, and after fierce arguments over his efforts to pay for an expensive foreign policy, he ruled without Parliament from 1629, raising money on his own authority. This, and the religious policies of Archbishop Laud - which seemed to threaten the return of Catholicism - were unpopular. However, Charles succeeded until Presbyterian Scotland rebelled against his efforts to impose an English-style Church there. The Scots invaded England, and Charles's need for money obliged him to call Parliament. Parliament's distrust of Charles and its efforts to obtain a share of government led him to begin the Civil War in 1642. The creation of the successful New Model Army helped Parliament to victory by 1649. The Parliamentarians felt that Charles could not be trusted. He was therefore beheaded, and England was declared a republic (1649). The Parliamentary commander, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), then asserted the authority of the Parliamentary regime in Ireland and Scotland by force. English foreign policy in the 1650s was more aggressive and successful than under the Stuarts. However, the problem of a permanent replacement for the monarchy proved insoluble. Cromwell ruled as `Lord Protector' (1653-58), but on his death the only solution seemed to be the restoration of the Stuart monarchy, stripped of the powers that had proved so offensive under Charles I.
The Glorious Revolution and parliamentary monarchy
Exploiting the widespread fear of another civil war, Charles II (1660-85) advanced towards an absolute monarchy, supported by a small standing army. He also used this fear to defeat attempts to exclude his Catholic brother James from the succession. However, the efforts of James II (1685-88) to recatholicize England led supporters of the Anglican Church to invite William of Orange, husband of James's daughter Mary, to come to save them. William and his army landed in England in November 1688, and James fled to France. No blood was spilt, and the `Glorious Revolution' had been achieved. In the Bill of Rights of 1689 Parliament declared some of the royal powers used by James illegal, and offered the Crown jointly to William (1689-1702) and Mary (1689-94), obliging them to call Parliament regularly. Aided by Louis XIV, James led a revolt in Ireland, but was defeated by William at the Battle of the Boyne (1690). This laid the foundations of effective British control of Ireland. Scotland also rejected James's political and religious policies in 1688-89, offering the Scottish Crown to William and Mary, but retaining its own parliament. Under William and Mary, and then Anne (1702-14), England's growing army and navy played a major part in defeating Louis XIV, obliging him to recognize the Revolution settlement.
These wars required enormous loans - often raised by the Bank of England, founded in 1694 - which in turn contributed to the growth of the national debt. These loans were secured by regular grants from Parliament, to which governments became more accountable for their policies. Ministers controlled Parliament by the use of patronage (basically a form of bribery), a system perfected by Sir Robert Walpole, the first `Prime Minister' (1721-42).
Anne, the last Stuart monarch, left no surviving heir, so the Elector George of Hanover, in virtue of his descent from a daughter of James I, became king as George I. The most obvious threat to the new Hanoverian dynasty came from the Jacobites, supporters of the son (Prince James Francis Edward Stuart, the `Old Pretender') and grandson (Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the `Young Pretender') of the exiled James II. In Scotland - which had lost its separate parliament by the 1707 Act of Union - Jacobite sympathies remained strong, particularly in the Highlands. These sympathies broke out in two major revolts, in 1715 and 1745-46, which were, however, defeated. The final defeat of the Jacobites was followed by the collapse of the old Gaelic-speaking society and culture of the Scottish Highlands.
Secure at home, Great Britain had triumphed abroad by 1763 with its victories in the Seven Years War and acquisition of vast new colonial territories. This stability, combined withits growing empire, enabled Britain to embark on a process of industrialization that was to make it the world's most powerful country in the 19th century.
Oliver Cromwell led the English forces in quelling the Irish rebellion from 1649.
The Rise of Britain (2 of 2)
BRITAIN AND IRELAND
The independence of Gaelic Ireland came to an end in 1171, when its disunited kingdoms succumbed to invasion by Henry II of England. But the Anglo-Norman settlers soon lost their identity and were absorbed into Gaelic Irish culture. Over the next 400 years English monarchs made successive attempts to quell Irish resistance to their authority. By 1500 only a small area around Dublin (the Pale) remained loyal to English culture and administration. Beyond the Pale most land was in the hands of native Irish, who looked to their Gaelic chieftains for leadership. In the 16th century the racial and cultural hostility between English and Irish was exacerbated by the Reformation. These tensions - together with efforts made to increase the authority of the English Crown at the expense of the chieftains - contributed to a number of Catholic Irish rebellions. Most threatening was the revolt in Ulster (1595-1603) led by the chieftains O'Neill (Earl of Tyrone) and O'Donnell. Despite early successes and some support from Philip II of Spain, their rebellion was eventually suppressed by a concerted English effort.
Under Mary I and Elizabeth I 'plantations' of English settlers had been established in Munster, Leinster and Ulster. James I continued this policy with a more ambitious plantation of Ulster. Native Catholic landowners were dispossessed and replaced by (generally Protestant) settlers from England and southwest Scotland. In 1641 the embittered Catholics of the north of Ireland rose up and slaughtered thousands of Protestant settlers. The Irish rebellion was not suppressed until the arrival in Ireland of Oliver Cromwell in 1649. The Parliamentary army waged a ruthless campaign against the Irish, storming the towns of Drogheda and Wexford and massacring their civilian populations. Cromwell sought to prevent further uprisings by encouraging increased Protestant settlement. The lands of those involved in the revolt were given to Englishmen, many native Irish being forcibly resettled on less fertile land elsewhere.
William III's victory at the Battle of the Boyne (1690) ensured the triumph of British rule and the Protestant ascendancy in Ireland. Thereafter, new 'penal laws' further discriminated against Irish Catholics, while revolt was discouraged by the presence of large numbers of English troops. The disastrous history of 17th-century Ireland established a tradition of national and sectarian hostility that has persisted to the present day.
THE GROWTH OF LONDON
London lay at the heart of Britain's growing power. The city's population trebled between 1500 and 1600 to 220 000 - about 5% of the population of England. Despite the loss of 10 000 people in the last of the great plagues to hit London (1665), its population had more than doubled to 550 000 by 1700 - 10% of the population of England. By 1800, 1 million people lived in London - about 11 or 12% of the population of England. By contrast, only about 2% of the population of France lived in Paris at the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789.
London was the center of the country's political life. The expanding administration surrounded the monarchs in their palaces in the London area: Whitehall, Hampton Court, Kensington Palace and Buckingham Palace. Parliament met at Westminster, while the Inns of Court became busier as more people used legal means, rather than violence, to settle disputes.
London was already the country's leading commercial center. In the 16th century, England's most valuable export, wool, was shipped from London to the Netherlands. From the later 17th century fortunes were made in the booming colonial trades. These trades, and the needs of government, stimulated the development of banking and insurance services, and a market in stocks and shares, while foreign money was attracted to the City of London. London's growth stimulated the economy of the rest of England, which provided most of London's food, fuel and other needs.
The development in London of a fashionable consumer society, frequenting the coffee houses and theaters, created employment and helped to attract immigrants from the countryside. The City had been partially rebuilt after the loss of 13 000 homes in the Great Fire of 1666. Soon, however, new suburbs had to be developed beyond the City gates, which were demolished in the 1760s. As London grew so did the problem of maintaining order. The London mob was one of the few remaining unstable elements in the political life of Britain by the middle of the 18th century.
le of the 18th century.
* THE INVASIONS
* THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR
* THE REFORMATION
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
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ftsTitleOverride
Louis XIV (page 1)
ftsTitle
The young Louis XIV depicted in martial pose by Jean-Baptiste Martin around 1688.
Louis XIV (1 of 3)
Between the end of the Thirty Years War and the French Revolution the most characteristic form of government in Europe was absolute monarchy. In this style of government not only were kings unhindered by the need to refer to representative assemblies, but they also developed ways of controlling their states more firmly. The archetype of the absolute monarch was Louis XIV, king of France (1643-1715), whom many other rulers took as their model. Despite practical limitations on his absolutism, Louis was able to threaten Western Europe with French domination. For much of the first half of the 17th century, France had been ruled by two chief ministers. Louis XIII (1610-43) had given great power to Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642), and when Louis died his widow acted as regent for his son Louis XIV - then a child - though much power was in the hands of another chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin (1602-61). Resentment of Mazarin's influence contributed to the outbreak of civil war in France (the so-called `Frondes') in 1648-53.
Louis' personal rule in France
When Mazarin died in 1661, the 22-year-old Louis declared that henceforth he would rule personally. He did so until his death in 1715. His persistence owed a great deal to his belief (commonly held at that time) that kings ruled by divine right, receiving their power from God, and so must rule justly and in person. This belief is summed up in the famous words attributed to Louis, `L'utat c'est moi' (`I am the state').
Louis had a number of very capable ministers, notably Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619-83) and the Marquis de Louvois (1641-91), but made it clear that they were his servants and dependent on his favor. He also adopted the Sun as his personal emblem and commissioned artists and writers to glorify him as the Sun King (le roi soleil).
Royal academies were set up to promote and direct the arts and sciences. Colbert set up state trading companies and state-subsidized factories in order to stimulate the economy. This growing cultural and economic regulation, together with Colbert's efforts to increase tax revenue, greatly stimulated the development of a centrally controlled bureaucracy.
French soldiers leading a charge against the Dutch in the War of the Spanish Succession. The war over the accession to the Spanish throne, fueled by Louis XIV, brought France close to collapse.
Louis XIV (2 of 3)
Efforts were also made to end disorder. The nobles, who had been so unruly during the Frondes, were encouraged to attend Louis' court at Versailles. Far away from their power bases in the provinces, and under the watchful eye of the king, they were less likely to cause mischief.
At the same time the king's power to suppress dissent was increased once Louvois had completed the creation of a large standing army. Religious division was strongly disapproved, and in 1685 Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had declared toleration for Protestantism in France. Louis also asserted his authority over the Church in France against the pope, but subsequently allied with him to suppress the Jansenists, a radical and anti-papal school of thought within the French Church.
Louis and Europe
Louis' identification of himself with the state was most evident in his foreign policy. He was always jealous of his personal reputation, or gloire (`glory'), which he considered to be inseparable from that of France. Louis' main concern, however, was France's vulnerability, and for this reason he had great fortresses built along the eastern and northeastern borders. Louis also believed in dynastic right, and asserted his claim to the Spanish Empire that ringed France. Skilled French diplomacy was backed by the army, and by a large navy built by Colbert.
Between 1667 and 1713 Louis fought a series of increasingly large-scale and expensive wars in an effort to strengthen France's frontiers and assert his own prestige and dynastic rights. As time went on the fear he aroused led to the formation of large coalitions against him; and the fact that after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 England finally joined his enemies was a serious setback.
The peace of 1697 saw Louis forced for the first time to return some of his previous gains, while the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13) brought France close to collapse. When Louis died in 1715, he left France territorially strengthened, but at a heavy economic and social cost.
Yet French influence remained great. Other rulers in Europe envied Louis' authority in France and his success abroad. Those who had not already introduced absolutist measures copied his bureaucracy, his tax system, his standing army, his academies, and his style of personal rule. In imitation of Versailles, many set up court in great new palaces away from their capitals, and French fashions and manners were widely imitated.
The limits of absolutism
Yet despite greater central control, a large number of individuals, groups and provinces enjoyed privileges restricting Louis' authority. Since Louis had neither the resources nor the inclination to end these privileges, the administration of France was by no means completely centralized or uniform. Much of it remained in the hands of independent officials. Louis therefore depended on the cooperation of the privileged groups, and their desire for order. His government also depended increasingly on huge loans from private financiers.
These limits were made clear in the 1690s and 1700s, when Louis' wars demanded more money. More offices were sold, and the tax burden and government debt vastly increased. The growing burden on the mass of the population became even heavier when accompanied, as in 1693-94 and in 1709, by harvest failure and famine.
Nevertheless absolute monarchy was still intact in 1715. It declined under Louis XIV's successors because neither Louis XV nor Louis XVI had the same capacity to run the machine. Even so, its survival until the Revolution in 1789 contributed to the long-term centralization of French government.
The Palace of Versailles. As well as being Louis XIV's greatest memorial, Versailles was also to become the scene of Britain's recognition of American independence (1783), the crowning of Wilhelm I as the first emperor of Germany (1871), and the signing of the main peace treaty after World War I (1919).
Louis XIV (3 of 3)
VERSAILLES
The palace of Versailles remains the most enduring monument to Louis XIV's absolute rule. Louis had a great passion for building, and he also had unpleasant memories of Paris during the civil wars of his childhood. He therefore built the greatest of his palaces at Versailles outside Paris.
Originally a hunting lodge, it was transformed between 1670 and 1700 by the addition of two wings designed by J.H. Mansart, and the laying out of extensive formal gardens by Andru Le Notre. The interior was redesigned by Charles Le Brun, with much gilt and glass, and many tapestries. These were often supplied by the subsidized factories, such as the famous Gobelins tapestry factory. Paintings celebrated Louis' military successes in the Dutch Wars and his achievements within France. The image of the Sun - Louis' personal emblem - was everywhere.
Louis personally directed much of the works, which employed 36000 men in the 1680s and cost 70 million livres. They were still unfinished when he and his court took up residence from the 1670s. Eventually 15000 people lived there and in the adjacent town.
Versailles remained the residence of the absolute monarchy until 1789. Here Louis saw his ministers, gave his orders, and received foreign princes and ambassadors. Spectacular entertainments stressed the king's magnificence, many of these being contrived by the playwright Moliere and the composer Lully. Life at Versailles revolved around Louis' daily routine: it was claimed that the time could be told simply by knowing what Louis was doing.
The nobles were expected to attend the court as a sign of loyalty, and there they competed with each other to perform menial tasks around Louis - since that was the means to royal favor. Banishment from Versailles and the king's presence became a severe punishment. In this way Louis reduced the independence of the nobility and reinforced his own power.
WARS OF LOUIS XIV
Dates Main Opponents
1667-68 Spain
1672-78 Netherlands, Spain, Holy Roman Empire
1689-97 Netherlands, Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Britain
European Empires in the 17th and 18th Centuries (page 1)
ftsTitle
The surrender of the Royal Prince to the Dutch in 1666, by the great marine painter Willem van de Velde. Although the English emerged from the three Anglo-Dutch Wars as the victors, the second war saw a succession of Dutch naval victories, culminating in the burning of the English fleet at its base in Chatham, Kent.
European Empires in the 17th and 18th Centuries (1 of 2)
European expansion overseas in the 16th century had been limited to Spain and Portugal, and the Spanish colonial empire remained the largest in the world in the 17th and 18th centuries. However, in the 17th century new colonial empires were created by the maritime states of northwest Europe - Britain, France and the Dutch Republic. Much of this was at the expense of Spain and Portugal, but Europeans were also making their presence felt in new areas. These new empires provided Europe with a wide range of colonial products and stimulated the demand for and production of European-manufactured goods.
The wealth of their new trading empires increased the importance of Britain and the Dutch Republic in European politics. These states were therefore eager to defend and add to their colonies, and this led to wars that were fought all over the world. The decline of a number of European states in the 18th century also allowed the emergence of a number of new powers, particularly in Eastern Europe, which did not rely on overseas trade and colonization.
Colonial trade, mercantilism and settlement
Europe's overseas trade boomed in the 17th and 18th centuries owing to growing demand for a wider range of goods: timber and other naval stores, furs, tobacco, rice and fish (all from North America), tea, cotton and silk (from the East), coffee (from Java, the Americas and the East), but above all sugar (from Brazil and the West Indies). The sugar, tobacco, and coffee plantations depended on regular supplies of African slaves. A trade 'triangle' developed. Traders from Europe would buy slaves in West Africa, carrying them to the Americas. There they traded them for colonial products with which they returned to Europe. In Europe processing industries refined those products for re-export to other parts of Europe.
The attitude of the governments of the period towards their colonies was influenced by the theories of mercantilism. These theories assumed the amount of wealth in the world to be fixed, and therefore that individual states had to ensure that their subjects achieved the largest share possible of world trade. Since success depended on a favorable trade balance, governments felt that their policies should encourage manufactured exports, and discourage their import. It was thought that a country's trade should be monopolized by its own subjects, and that colonies existed only to benefit the mother country.
Although mercantilists thought colonial settlement encouraged demand for home exports, colonies were regarded more as sources of profit rather than as outlets for excess population. Settlement, which was heaviest in the Americas, was often independent of government sponsorship.
The Anglo-Dutch Wars
Profits from the Dutch domination of the maritime trade between the Baltic and southern Europe provided capital for colonial projects. In the first half of the 17th century the Dutch seized most of Portugal's scattered East Indian empire, along with its valuable spice trade. They also captured many of its African forts, and temporarily held part of Brazil. During the English Civil War, the Dutch also gained a hold on England's trade with her North American colonies.
The Dutch were therefore the target for the mercantilist policies of their rivals. From 1651 the Navigation Acts reserved the produce of England's colonies for England, and their carriage to English shipping. The Acts led to a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-54, 1665-67, 1672-74) fought out - mostly at sea - in many parts of the world. England ousted the Dutch from North America and West Africa (and so from the slave trade) and gradually excluded them from its foreign and colonial trade. Expensive land wars against France overstrained Dutch re-sources, and by 1713, when the wars of Louis XIV ended, the Dutch were being overtaken by both Britain and France.
The Anglo-French colonial struggle
Britain and France now increasingly felt that each was the other's natural trading and colonial rival. French colonization had begun in a number of West Indian islands and Canada early in the 17th century, and in Louisiana (which then comprised much of the Mississippi basin) at the end of the 17th century. In 1713 Britain took advantage of victory in Europe to secure her position in North America, gaining Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay. The two countries were on opposing sides during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48), when for the first time the British and French East India Companies fought each other in India. Neither country gained a decisive advantage in this war, and the struggle continued.
Fighting in North America contributed to the outbreak of the Seven Years War (1756-63). While Prussia distracted France in Germany, the British navy achieved dominance over the French at sea. Most of France's main colonies were captured, including Canada, thanks to the victory of General James Wolfe (1727-59) at Quebec. In India, under the generalship of Robert Clive (1725-74), victories over Indians and French made the British East India Company a large private colonial power, which dominated the subcontinent. France renewed the struggle during the American War of Independence (1776-83). Yet, despite Britain's loss of its American colonies, the war did not reverse Britain's long-term victory in the colonial struggle.
European Empires in the 17th and 18th Centuries (page 2)
ftsTitle
Captain Cook was one of the key figures in navigational history. His career was cut short when he was clubbed to death by Polynesians, following an argument about the theft of a small boat.
European Empires in the 17th and 18th Centuries (2 of 2)
The non-colonial empires of Europe
While the maritime states sought wealth and power overseas, new great powers emerged in 18th-century Europe without the aid of colonial wealth. The Baltic empire that Sweden had built up during the 17th century collapsed during the Great Northern War (1700-21). That war saw the first appearance of Russia as a European power. Russia had been emerging in the later 17th century, a process greatly accelerated by Peter the Great (1682-1725). He created a large Russian army and navy and gave Russia a Baltic outlet. Russia continued to expand into Siberia in the 18th century, and in the reign of Catherine the Great (1762-96) exploited Turkish decline to expand southwards - a process continued in the 19th century.
Austria had reconquered Hungary from the Turks by 1700 and had been revitalized after losing Silesia to Prussia in the 1740s. Prussia had been a small and scattered kingdom in 1740. However, a superb administration and a large and effective army enabled Frederick the Great (1740-86) to seize Silesia in 1740, and to resist Austrian efforts (supported for most of the Seven Years War by Russia) to recover it. In 1772 Prussia, Russia and Austria agreed to the first partition of Poland, which for most of the 18th century had been a Russian satellite. Subsequent partitions, in 1793 and 1795, saw the disappearance of independent Poland and the further enlargement of Austria, Prussia and Russia.
THE OPENING UP OF THE PACIFIC
Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch explorers began to explore the Pacific in the 17th century. At first they believed that Australia (then known as New Holland) was part of a larger southern continent. In 1642 the Dutchman Abel Tasman (1603-59) discovered Tasmania and the south island of New Zealand, and by sailing round Australia proved it to be an island. However, the Pacific remained largely unknown, too distant and too poor to attract European trading interest.
France's expulsion from America and India, and the belief that the East offered great wealth, turned European attention to the Pacific in the 1760s. In 1767 the British reached Tahiti, to be followed in 1768 by a French expedition under Louis Antoine de Bougainville (1729-1811).
Captain James Cook (1728-79) visited Tahiti on the first (1768-71) of three Pacific voyages. He charted the New Zealand coasts and landed on the east coast of Australia at Botany Bay. On his second voyage (1772-75) Cook discovered Easter Island, the Society and Friendly Islands, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island and the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). On his last voyage, to discover the Northwest Passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic via the Arctic (1775-79), Cook was killed in Hawaii.
However, the new lands were still too poor to be settled without government intervention. American independence obliged the British government to transport convicts elsewhere. They were sent to Botany Bay, where the first batch arrived in 1788.
Frontispiece for the New Royal Encyclopaedia (1790). The first Encyclopudie (1751-72) was a multi-volume monument to Enlightenment thinking. Masterminded by Diderot, it included Voltaire and Rousseau among its contributors. The Encyclopudie incorporated the latest knowledge and progressive ideas and helped spread the ideas of Enlightenment across Europe.
The Enlightenment (1 of 2)
In the late 17th century English thinkers provided the foundation for a body of ideas that were developed in France in the 18th century and then spread through Europe. For their adherents these ideas represented an attempt to bring humanity into the light of reason out of the darkness of tradition and prejudice - hence the term the Enlightenment. This `enlightenment' was to be achieved by the application of critical and rational thought to assumptions hitherto taken for granted. At its peak in the 1750s it seemed that this bold, liberating movement had captured the minds of monarchs - the so-called enlightened despots - and that this explained the major reforms being attempted in many states in the later 18th century. Yet the practical influence of the Enlightenment was never great, and its intellectual impetus declined in the later 18th century. Tradition and the Church, the great enemies of the Enlightenment, survived the attack.
The development of the Enlightenment
The scientific discoveries of the first half of the 17th century undermined traditional explanations of the universe. A new explanation was devised by the French philosopher, Renu Descartes (1596-1650). Descartes was skeptical about all knowledge derived from the senses, and saw the universe as a mechanical system ordained by God, a system explicable by abstract mathematical laws. By 1700 Cartesianism - as Descartes' philosophy became known - was the general intellectual orthodoxy in much of Europe. However, the continued progress of experimental science, and Newton's discoveries in physics and optics, showed that Descartes' system had no basis in reality.
That system was therefore discredited in favor of an explanation of reality based on experiment (an approach known as empiricism). The English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) provided an intellectual basis for this empiricism. He argued that ideas were the product of sensation and experience and that people were not born with ideas (not even of God, contrary to what the Church and Des cartes himself believed). According to Locke, human behavior was based on two desires - to avoid pain, and to seek pleasure. Newton and Locke provided the basis of a sustained critical movement, popularized by a group of French writers known as the Philosophes. The greatest of these was Voltaire (1694-1778), who introduced the ideas of Newton and Locke to France in his Philosophical Letters (1734). Encyclopedias and dictionaries were a favorite way of spreading the new ideas. The Philosophe Denis Diderot (1713-84) was largely responsible for the 28-volume Encyclopudie (1751-72), which incorporated the latest knowledge and progressive ideas, and which helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment in France and in other parts of Europe.
The Enlightenment consensus
There was no single `Enlightenment' attitude. However, there was a consensus of enlightened opinion in the 1750s, symbolized by the Encyclopudie. This consensus was founded on the belief that the combination of reason and personal experience could discover the rules underlying the workings of nature. Such ideas led to a practical humanitarianism. The Italian legal theorist Cesare Beccaria (1738-94) urged the abolition of torture and the reform of penal codes. Some Philosophes were also critical of the way governments inflicted the horrors of war on their peoples.
Morality came to be seen as the product of circumstance, rather than an absolute truth - a view known as relativism. In his Spirit of the Laws (1748) the French philosopher Montesquieu (1689-1755) analyzed how different circumstances in different societies produced different laws. The discovery of non-Christian societies by overseas exploration encouraged such relativism. Since there was no monopoly of truth or right, Enlightenment thinkers - notably Voltaire - called for toleration and attacked the Church as a powerful and repressive authority.
In place of established religion many of the Philosophies proposed the `natural religion' of Deism, which required that religion conform to the workings of the universe as discovered by reason. Miracles and religion dependent on divine revelation were rejected as mere superstition. The Deists proposed a God who was simply a benevolent force. He had endowed individuals with reason and control of their fate, but otherwise played little part in human affairs.
* THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
* THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* INDEPENDENCE IN THE AMERICAS
* THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
* KNOWLEDGE AND REALITY
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The Enlightenment (page 2)
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Voltaire in his study. Best known today for his novel Candide (1759), Voltaire was also a playwright, philosopher, scientist and moralist. He infused all of his work with a concern for humanity and truth, and constantly pleaded for toleration. `I may disagree with what you say,' said Voltaire, `but I will defend to the death your right to say it.' (Musue Carnavalet, Paris).
The Enlightenment (2 of 2)
Enlightened despotism
Apart from Montesquieu, Enlightenment writers said little about political theory or organization. Although the Philosophes were generally liberal in outlook, some looked to autocratic rulers to carry out their ideas. Catherine the Great (1762-96) drew on Enlightenment ideas when initiating reform in Russia. The transformation of Prussia by Frederick the Great, who corresponded with Voltaire, seemed a triumph of enlightened despotism. Both Frederick and Emperor Joseph II of Austria (1765-90) saw authority as a trust, to be used to promote the welfare of their subjects.
Yet Joseph's major reform of the Habsburg monarchy was largely a continuation of the reforms begun by his very conservative mother, Maria Theresa. Both wished to make Austria powerful again - the object of reform in most big states. Joseph wished to abolish serfdom mainly so that peasants could pay higher taxes. For the same reason, the humanitarian aspect of the Enlightenment was largely ignored in Prussia. Genuinely enlightened reform was often easier in the smaller states of Germany and Italy. Elsewhere tradition and privilege remained powerful. Most of Joseph II's reforms were withdrawn in the face of the hostility of various privileged groups.
Reform was often forced on governments. The suppression of the Jesuits in 1773 was not the result of Enlightenment in fluence, but nevertheless obliged governments to establish new educational institutions to replace those previously run by the Jesuits.
The impact of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment provided some of the ideas and language of the American and French Revolutions, but did not cause them. Since the vast majority of Europeans remained uneducated, the number of those directly influenced by the Enlightenment was very small.
In the second half of the 18th century the Enlightenment faced growing competition from irrational movements. The reaction against reason was expressed most forcefully by Jean Jacques Rousseau. Formerly a Philosophe, Rousseau now rejected the values of the Enlightenment, arguing that natural instinct was the best guide. Individual feeling, not universal reason, was what mattered. This attitude was the core of Romanticism, the movement that was to sweep across Europe at the end of the 18th century.
THE SCOTTISH ENLIGHTENMENT
Scotland played an important role in the Enlightenment and in 18th-century intellectual life in general. There were several reasons for this. Though still much poorer than England, Scotland was enjoying substantial economic growth, helped by the Union of 1707 with England. Glasgow grew rich on trade with America, and there was considerable industrial and agricultural development in the Lowlands (although the Highlands remained much poorer and more backward). The Lowlands also had one of the best school systems in Europe, provided by the dominant Presbyterian Church, while the two main universities, Glasgow and Edinburgh, were intellectually active in an age when universities generally were stagnant and unproductive.
Scottish intellectual achievement in this age was many-sided. David Hume (1711-76) produced, in his Treatise on Human Nature (1739), an extremely radical criticism of accepted philosophical assumptions. His attack on the validity of inductive reasoning in particular is a landmark in the history of philosophy.
In 1776 Adam Smith (1723-90) published his Wealth of Nations. Although less original than Hume's work - it owed a good deal to the writings of Smith's French contemporaries - it had more practical influence. Its stress on a more natural economic system and on free enterprise and free trade was found widely attractive and the book was translated into many European languages. Adam Ferguson (1723-1816) and John Millar (1735-1801) were among the forerunners of modern sociology, while Joseph Black (1728-99), a professor at Glasgow, did fundamental work on the science of heat. This helped James Watt (1736-1819) to develop a more efficient steam engine, an invention essential to the future development of industry throughout the world. It is perhaps significant of Scottish intellectual vitality in this period that the first edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica was published in Edinburgh (1768-71).
* THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
* THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* INDEPENDENCE IN THE AMERICAS
* THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
* KNOWLEDGE AND REALITY
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ftsTitleOverride
The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions (page 1)
ftsTitle
A steam-driven plowing machine c. 1860. The mechanization of farming accelerated after the introduction of steam power, with a consequent requirement for fewer and fewer people to work the land.
The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions (1 of 4)
A rapid and unprecedented rise in population occurred in Britain during the second half of the 18th century, and later in most other European nations. New and more efficient farming methods had to be found to feed the increased numbers, as traditional farming, based on subsistence methods, could not cope with the rise. The Industrial Revolution, which also began in Britain during the 18th century, spread to much of the northern hemisphere throughout the 19th and early part of the 20th centuries. The advent of mechanized mass production heralded the transformation of the countries of Europe and North America into predominantly industrial rather than agricultural nations, with their populations increasingly concentrated in the cities.
The Agricultural Revolution
In Britain almost all traces of the ancient `open-field' system of arable farming disappeared, and between 1760 and 1820 over 20 000 km to the power of 2 (7700 sq mi) of open field and common land were enclosed. Similar processes took place elsewhere. The process of enclosure involved wealthier farmers and landowners taking over land previously farmed by peasants who could not demonstrate legal ownership.
Once fields began to be enclosed, it was possible to keep animals away from others that might be diseased or underweight, and landowners began to experiment with carefully planned selective livestock breeding. Animals could be kept alive during the winter months, as extra fodder crops, such as turnips, were now grown. The introduction of four-field crop rotation made it possible to use all fields to the full every year.
New types of agricultural machinery such as the seed drill invented by Jethro Tull (1674-1741) in 1730 also led eventually to a great improvement in crop production. But new machines required fewer men to operate them. In some areas, farm workers forced farmers to destroy them, or did so themselves. Enclosures often led to great hardship, and to the eviction of many peasant farmers, which in some places led to riots and revolts, and in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands, for example, to mass emigration.
Throughout Europe the enormous agricultural changes made it possible for a reduced number of people working on the land to produce more food for the growing numbers of people who left the countryside to live in the industrial towns and cities. This process was helped by the increased use of artificial fertilizers and the cultivation of `new' staple crops: potatoes in northern Europe and maizein the south. More and more potential farmland was put to use, but despite this, by the early 20th century imported North American grain was essential to feed Europe's growing population.
* ARABLE FARMING
* LIVESTOCK FARMING
* CAPITAL AND LABOR
* ENGINES
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* IRON AND STEEL
* TEXTILES
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHIP
* RAILWAYS
* INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
Outline
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p420-2
ftsTitleOverride
The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions (page 2)
ftsTitle
The cotton mill was a large part of the Industrial Revolution. Here at a working museum in England, one can see how the raw cotton is processed into thread and woven into cloth.
The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions (2 of 4)
The beginnings of the Industrial Revolution
Why did the Industrial Revolution begin in Britain? Britain had the advantage of being a united country with a relatively stable internal political situation, free from internal customs duties and with well-established banking and insurance facilities. In the 18th century Britain became the dominant international trading power, and many British merchants had accumulated large sums of capital. In addition, the Agricultural Revolution produced huge profits for some farmers. This made it possible for ambitious new schemes to be financed at very low rates of interest.
Britain's secure position as an island, combined with its proximity to the principal sea routes between northern Europe and the rest of the world, gave it great natural advantages. In addition, Britain's large numbers of natural harbors and navigable rivers - many linked by new canals in the 18th century - meant that internal and overseas trade were easily linked. Acquisition of a colonial empire became vitally important for Britain and later for other powers, so as to provide markets and raw materials.
Rapid industrial development was also precipitated by a need to tackle Britain's fuel crisis. By the mid-18th century it was apparent that the forests were seriously depleted; opencast and shallow underground coal mines were nearing exhaustion and existing technologies for draining deeper mine shafts were inadequate. The invention of steam pumps as a far more efficient way to drain mines and the discovery of a process for smelting iron using coke made possible a more intense exploitation of Britain's mineral resources. The geology of Britain - with sources of coal and iron ore close to each other - also played its part.
Textiles
Woolen cloth had long been one of Britain's most important products, but as the 18th century progressed, it became difficult to fulfill the greatly increased demand. Inventions such as the spinning jenny produced larger quantities of thread more quickly, especially cotton. Cotton was imported in increasing quantities from the USA, and became vital to the British textile industry. Further mechanical spinning devices such as the water frame and the spinning mule appeared in the 1770s, and in 1785 the introduction of Cartwright's power loom , capable of being operated by relatively unskilled labor, marked the end of handloom weaving. The initial development of mechanized textile industries in the USA and much of continental Europe was dependent on many of these British inventions.
Only those with capital could invest in the new machinery, and those without it could not produce thread or cloth as cheaply. Thus mechanization of the textile industry gave rise to the factory system. Instead of being self-employed and working at home, women and children (who had always been expected to work for their living) - and later men as well - went `out to work' for wages in the factories, where steam engines set the pace. Attempts to destroy the new machinery by disgruntled weavers (`Luddites') were severely repressed.
* ARABLE FARMING
* LIVESTOCK FARMING
* CAPITAL AND LABOR
* ENGINES
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* IRON AND STEEL
* TEXTILES
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHIP
* RAILWAYS
* INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
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Cotton mill
**++*
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p420-3
ftsTitleOverride
The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions (page 3)
ftsTitle
A train of second-class carriages pulled by Robert Stephenson's Jupiter, built in 1831 for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. As a cheap and rapid method of long-distance transport - carrying workers and materials to where they were needed - railways provided a great impetus to the process of industrialization in virtually every country in the world.
The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions (3 of 4)
Iron, steel, steam and coal
The breakthroughs in iron smelting and production in the 18th century were vital to early industrialization. Iron was used for machinery, ships, and railways. Although high-quality cast steel was produced from the 1740s, it was not until 1857 that a cheap method of mass producing mild steel was discovered (the Bessemer process). This process was developed and improved by others, and large-scale production of steel using these techniques was an important factor in the rapid industrial growth of Germany and the USA.
Experimental attempts to drain water from mines led to the early steam engines of Savery (1698) and Newcomen (1712). However, it was not until James Watt redesigned Newcomen's device (patented in 1769) that a cheaper and more efficient steam pump became available. With the addition of rotary motion, achieved by Watt in 1781, steam engines quickly became ubiquitous. As well as pumps, steam engines powered all kinds of factory machinery, railway locomotives, and ships. Without steam many of the later developments of the Industrial Revolution would have been impossible.
Coal production was dramatically increased as a direct result of the availability of practical steam pumps and other innovations. However, deeper, more mechanized mining proved more dangerous to the mineworkers, who included children of 4 years old and upwards. Coal was the basic fuel for steam engines, and throughout Europe and the northeast USA heavy industry grew up in areas close to rich coal seams. Such areas included the Scottish lowlands, South Wales, the Ruhr and Silesia.
By the 1880s, the development of electrical energy as a power source, pioneered by Michael Faraday (1791-1867), heralded the introduction of a rival that was eventually to supersede steam. British industries, unlike those in Germany and the USA, were slow to abandon steam engines until well into the 20th century.
Other industries, such as the potteries of Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795), were transformed during the 18th century by the invention of new chemical processes. Development of accurate and standardized machine tools was also a very important aspect of the Industrial Revolution.
Transport
The need for reliable and cheap access to raw materials and markets made improvements in transport an essential part of the Industrial Revolution.
Road building enjoyed a long overdue revival in the 18th century, pioneered in Britain by such men as McAdam and Telford. Initially more important, however, were canals, which provided the cheapest way of transporting goods and materials in bulk. A massive canal-building program got under way in the 18th century, and by 1830 there were over 6400 km (4000 mi) of canals in Britain alone, linking all the main industrial areas. However, with the advent of the railways, the canals fell rapidly into disuse.
Following the opening of the first public steam line in 1825 (Stephenson's Stockton & Darlington), private railway companies in Britain proliferated rapidly, with the result that a national network evolved with little attempt at planning. In continental Europe the railways were subject to a greater degree of state regulation and control. This was especially true of Belgium and Germany.
By providing a rapid means of transporting in bulk both raw materials and manufactured goods, the growth of railway networks greatly assisted the process of industrialization. The railways also provided an impetus for other developments, such as the electric telegraph, and in the USA they played a key role in opening up the interior after the Civil War. The railways also played a social and cultural role: by providing a means of cheap and swift long-distance passenger transport they opened up a wider world to millions of people.
The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions (page 4)
ftsTitle
Steel making using the Bessemer process in a German foundry. Large-scale production of steel in the later 19th century contributed to the emergence of Germany and the USA as major industrial powers.
The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions (4 of 4)
Industrialization outside Britain
Although Britain initiated the Industrial Revolution, other European nations, notably Belgium, were close behind. In France, industrialization proceeded more slowly, but was still impressive. The `second phase' of the Industrial Revolution (from the 1880s onwards) was dominated by electricity and by the internal combustion engine. Superior expertise in these technologies resulted in Germany overtaking Britain as Europe's leading industrial power. Government encouragement of a systematic program of scientific and technical education also contributed to Germany's success.
The USA enjoyed vast supplies of raw materials and a rapidly increasing population - supplemented by large-scale immigration. The difficulties of developing an adequate transport system to cover vast distances held industrialization in check for a while. However, by the start of the 20th century the USA had become the world's leading industrial power.
For Russia and Japan, industrialization during the later part of the 19th century was a result of deliberate government policy. In the 1850s, both powers were largely agricultural societies dominated by ancient feudal systems, but by the start of the 20th century Japan had emerged as a serious industrial, military and economic rival to the world's industrial giants.
Russia's industrialization was hampered by the country's vast size and poor communications, and even more so by the backwardness of a society still run as a feudal system, and by the inertia of the autocratic rule of the Tsars. A succession of foreign loans and internal reforms gradually made it possible to increase production and build up a railway network, and in the early years of the 20th century state aid was used to encourage growth. However, the strain of war, in 1904-5 (against Japan) and again in 1914-17 (World War I), caused the government's final collapse. Industrialization continued following the Bolshevik Revolution, but under circumstances of extreme difficulty.
* ARABLE FARMING
* LIVESTOCK FARMING
* CAPITAL AND LABOR
* ENGINES
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* IRON AND STEEL
* TEXTILES
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHIP
* RAILWAYS
* INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
Encyclopedia
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Independence in the Americas (page 1)
ftsTitle
An English customs officer is tarred and feathered by American patriots angry at the British tax on tea. The Americans resented having to pay taxes levied by a London parliament.
Independence in the Americas (1 of 2)
Between 1808 and 1826 Spain lost most of its empire in the Americas, and in 1824 the Portuguese colony of Brazil declared itself an empire independent of the mother country. These, however, were not the first independence movements in the Americas. The USA had freed itself from British dominion in 1783 after the American War of Independence.
Continuous European settlement of North America dates from the beginning of the 17th century. The first British plantation, Virginia, was established in 1607, with its center at Jamestown. In November 1620 Protestant separatists (Puritans) reached Cape Cod after sailing from Plymouth in the Mayflower two months earlier. Their Massachusetts Bay colony became a refuge for Puritans fleeing religious strife in England. Other British settlements followed, notably New York (formerly Dutch New Netherland) and Quaker Pennsylvania. In the South the tobacco plantations were worked by imported African slaves. By 1700 most of the colonies possessed governors appointed by the Crown and had been integrated into Britain's Atlantic empire.
In 1756-63 Britain won mastery of the continent by defeating the French in the Seven Years War. France surrendered Louisiana (then comprising much of the Mississippi basin) to Spain (regaining it in 1800) and Spain in turn gave up Florida to Britain but retained its own settlements in the southwest. The British victory was a costly one, for the national debt almost doubled during these years. It was time, the British Parliament concluded, that the colonists made a greater contribution to their own defense.
Origins of the Revolution
During the first half of the 18th century Americans became used to a good deal of self-government. Wealthy planters, lawyers and merchants played leading roles in colonial society. Although they regarded themselves as British, they resented their lack of representation in Parliament and their economic subordination within the Empire (particularly restrictions on their ability to trade). In 1765 Parliament's imposition of a stamp duty on legal documents and merchandise unleashed the cry of 'no taxation without representation'.
Although widespread opposition to these measures forced the British government to back down - both on this occasion and again in 1767 - Parliament continued to insist that it had full power to make laws for the colonies and left a tax on tea as proof of its authority. In 1773 it allowed the struggling East India Company to dump its tea on the American market, still retaining the controversial duty. When the first consignment reached Boston, Massachusetts, a group of patriots - as the American radicals now called themselves - disguised themselves as Indians. They proceeded to throw the tea chests into the harbor, in what became known as the 'Boston Tea Party'. America was now ripe for revolution.
First blows
Britain instituted repressive measures against Massachusetts, and Americans reacted by sending delegates to the First Continental Congress in September 1774. This banned the import of goods from Britain, while colonial pamphleteers insisted that traditional freedoms were being threatened by a corrupt and tyrannical enemy. In April 1775, when British troops moved to seize a store of arms outside Boston, they were confronted at Lexington by armed Massachusetts farmers, and retreated without achieving their objective.
The Declaration of Independence
King George III and his government in Britain now regarded the Americans as traitors who must be suppressed. To this end large numbers of British troops and German mercenaries were sent across the Atlantic. The Americans themselves were divided as to how they should react. Most of those at the head of the patriot movement, however, believed Britain's policy of coercion had severed the ties of empire. In mid-1776 a Virginia planter, Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), drafted a formal Declaration of Independence. This also announced a potentially revolutionary new doctrine: 'that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness'. Congress approved the document on 4 July.
The War of Independence
In the eight-year-long struggle for independence the Americans had a number of crucial advantages. They were fighting in conditions familiar to them but to which the British had to adapt; and the considerable number of Americans who remained loyal to the British Crown proved a relatively ineffective force. Even more important, the Americans had interior lines of communication, whereas the enemy was dependent on a 5000 km (3000 mi) long supply route from Europe. Moreover the rebels owed much to the leadership of George Washington (1732-99), a cautious but inspiring commander.
Finally, France's decision to support the American cause after the patriot victory at Saratoga in 1777 diverted much of Britain's resources and threatened the Royal Navy's mastery of the seas. When a British army under Cornwallis found itself besieged by Washington at Yorktown in 1781 a French fleet in Chesapeake Bay cut off the only avenue of escape. Cornwallis surrendered on 19 October, and Yorktown turned out to be the decisive engagement of the war. Two years later, in 1783, Britain recognized American independence. The United States of America had entered the community of nations.
The Constitution
Until 1788 the only legal basis for the USA was the Articles of Confederation, which delegated very restricted powers to Congress. However, by the mid-1780s Congress's inability to respond effectively to economic pressure from European powers revealed clearly the shortcomings of the Articles. Moreover many conservatives feared serious social unrest in the aftermath of the war. The Articles, it seemed, would have to be replaced.
Fifty-five delegates from 12 of the states gathered in Philadelphia in May 1787 to draft a new constitution. Although Washington was president of the Convention and was to become the first president of the new republic in 1789, it was his fellow Virginian, James Madison (1751-1836), who had most influence on the proceedings. His 'Virginia Plan' proposed to create a stronger national government that should operate directly on individuals rather than states.
After much debate the Plan was modified, and as it finally emerged the Constitution was a compromise between the various regional interests in the Convention. In spite of serious flaws it was a remarkably democratic document for its time. Critics who disliked its strengthening of central government were placated in 1791 by the passage of a Bill of Rights, which formed the first ten amendments to the Constitution.
tution.
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE ENLIGHTENMENT
* THE EXPANSION OF THE USA
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Independence in the Americas (page 2)
ftsTitle
The Battle of Bunker Hill, 17 June 1775, the first major engagement of the War of Independence. Although the Americans were defeated by the British, their heroic defense and low casualties helped raise American morale. (Painting by John Trumbull, Yale University Art Gallery)
Independence in the Americas (2 of 2)
BRAZILIAN INDEPENDENCE
The Napoleonic Wars - the catalyst for Spain's loss of its American empire - also directly led to the independence of the Portuguese colony of Brazil. With a flourishing economy based on sugar, gold and diamonds, Brazil had by 1800 outstripped the mother country in prosperity. In 1808, threatened by French invasion, the Portuguese royal family and government fled to Brazil. The prince regent, Dom John, reformed the administration and abolished Portugal's monopoly of trade with Brazil. Trade and Industry flourished. Ministeries, courts, and a range of legal, academic and educational institutions were founded, and Brazil's equality with Portugal under the crown was recognized. Dom John became king of Portugal (as John VI) in 1816. However, although the mother country had been freed from French rule, he did not return to Portugal until 1821, when his son Dom Pedro became regent in Brazil. The Portuguese parliament undid John's reforms in Brazil, reduced the country to its former colonial status, and - fearing that Dom Pedro would lead resistance to these changes - insisted that he return to Portugal, an order that he refused. Supported by an indignant population, he summoned a Brazilian assembly and declared Brazil independent with himself as emperor (1822).
INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA AND BRAZIL
At the beginning of the 19th century Latin America was divided between Spain and Portugal. Portugal controlled the extensive area known as Viceroyalty of Brazil. Spain's possessions in the Americas included Venezuela, Peru, Chile, Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico), Viceroyalty of New Granada (Colombia and Ecuador) and Viceroyalty of la Plata (Argentina).
In 1808 Napoleon forced the Bourbon king of Spain to abdicate and invaded Spain, precipitating a crisis throughout the Spanish dominions. Feelings of local patriotism and identity led many of them to reject Napoleon's emissaries, and many remained loyal to Spain. Patriotic support for independence was scattered and divided. An exception was the revolt in Mexico (1810) led by the priest Miguel Hidalgo, which gathered much local support until Hidalgo was defeated and executed in 1811.
In 1815, with Napoleon defeated, Spain was able to mount a serious attempt to reconquer its Latin American empire. An expeditionary force was sent to South America under General Pablo Morillo who rapidly reconquered Venezuela and New Granada. Venezuela had been briefly under the independent control of the rebel leader Simn Bolvar (1783-1830). Outside the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, the areas held by Latin American patriots were scattered and insignificant.
Morillo had large numbers of patriot leaders executed, exiled or punished harshly. His severity did much to create a sense of identity within the patriot camp which had previously been indifferent and divided. In 1816 Bolvar returned to Venezuela to declare 'war to the death' against the Spanish. Between 1816 and 1819 he re-established his command in Venezuela, and mounted an expedition that crossed the eastern Cordillera of the Andes and defeated the main Spanish force in New Granada at the Battle of Boyaca (August 1819).
Bolvar was not alone in his fight for independence in Latin America. He was joined by the most effective soldier among the liberators, Josu de San Martin (1778-1850). Previous attempts to strike at Spanish power in Peru had failed, but San Martin's strategy was to capture the neighboring compact province of Chile, form a navy, and move northwards up the coast to Peru. He liberated Chile in 1817-18 with victories over the Spanish at Chacabuco and Maip.
Although it was becoming clear by 1820 that the Spanish cause was - in the long term - a hopeless one, it took Bolvar and his lieutenants until 1824 to defeat the Spanish armies in Peru, at the battles of Junn and Ayacucho.
The Napoleonic Wars also directly led to the independence of the Portuguese colony of Brazil. With a flourishing economy based on sugar, gold and diamonds, Brazil had by 1800 outstripped the mother country in prosperity. In 1808, threatened by French invasion, the Portuguese royal family and government fled to Brazil. The prince regent, Dom John, reformed the administration and abolished Portugal's monopoly of trade with Brazil. Trade and industry flourished. Ministeries, courts, and a range of legal, academic and educational institutions were founded, and Brazil's equality with Portugal under the crown was recognized. Dom John became king of Portugal (as John VI) in 1816. However, although the mother country had been freed from French rule, he did not return to Portugal until 1821, when his son Dom Pedro became regent in Brazil. The Portuguese parliament undid John's reforms in Brazil, reduced the country to its former colonial status, and - fearing that Dom Pedro would lead resistance to these changes - insisted that he return to Portugal, an order that he refused. Supported by an indignant population, he summoned a Brazilian assembly and declared Brazil independent with himself as emperor (1822).
THE US CONSTITUTION AND BILL OF RIGHTS
The main provisions of the US Constitution (ratified in 1788) were:
1. A stronger central government divided into three branches - a president chosen by an Electoral College; a Federal judiciary; and a popularly elected House of Representatives and a Senate chosen by the state legislatures.
2. While representation in the House was based on population, each state sent two delegates to the Senate.
3. Congress was given full power to levy import duties and taxes.
4. For representation and tax purposes a Black slave was to be enumerated as three fifths of a White person.
5. The African slave trade was not to be abolished before 1808.
The Bill of Rights (ratified in 1791) formed the first 10 amendments to the Constitution. These ruled against:
1. Abridgment of freedom of religion, speech, the press, petition, and peaceful assembly.
2. Infringement of the right to bear arms.
3. The illegal quartering of troops.
4. Unreasonable searches and seizures.
5. The capital trial of any person for the same offense; deprivation of life, liberty or property 'without due process of law'; self-incrimination; uncompensated seizure of property.
6. Infringement of an accused person's right to a speedy and public trial before an impartial jury.
7. Depriving persons of the right to trial by jury in common-law suits where the value in question exceeded $20.
8. Excessive bail and punishments.
Amendments 9 and 10 declared that the listing in the Constitution of certain rights should not be taken to deny others retained by the people, and reserved to the states all powers not delegated to the Federal government by the Constitution.
Jefferson described these rights as 'what the people are entitled to against every government on earth', and several of them have been enshrined in the constitutions of other democratic countries.
The Tennis Court Oath, 20 June 1789. When the commoners (the Third Estate) of the States-General declared themselves a National Assembly on 17 June, they were shut out of their usual meeting place at Versailles. They met instead in one of the royal tennis courts, where they vowed to stay until Louis XVI agreed to a written constitution. This copy of a painting by Jacques-Louis David hangs in the Musue Carnavalet, Paris.
` Z The French Revolution (1 of 3)
Between 1789 and 1791 the political and social institutions that had characterized France for the previous century and more were overthrown. In 1792 France became a republic, and between 1793 and 1794 experienced a revolutionary dictatorship (the `Reign of Terror'). Thereafter a reaction set in, culminating in the establishment of a military dictatorship under Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821). With the overthrow of the republic, many of the institutions and practices of pre-Revolutionary France were reintroduced. In 1815, following Napoleon's final defeat, the Bourbon dynasty was restored. Yet the French revolution remains an event of major importance. It was the first `modern' revolution, in that it attempted to transform the whole social and political system. It put into circulation modern notions of democracy, nationalism, and even socialism. In these respects, and in its resort to violent dictatorship to effect this program, the French Revolution was very different from the earlier revolutions in England and America.
The background to the Revolution
The France of the ancien rugime - the term given to the political and social system prior to the Revolution - was a centralized, absolute monarchy ruled by Louis XVI (1774-92) from Versailles. Yet it remained a patchwork of privilege with the great mass of taxation being paid by the unprivileged urban poor and by the peasantry, who had the additional burden of feudal dues. The wealthiest non-nobles (the bourgeois), although by no means unprivileged, had less legal and social rights than the aristocracy.
Some nobles and bourgeois (particularly those influenced by Enlightenment ideas, agreed that merit should be the true basis of social status. They were also critical of royal absolutism and the corruption of the court. The monarchy was further undermined by the weak character of Louis XVI, and by the unpopularity of his Austrian queen, Marie Antoinette. The immediate background to the revolution was the government's bankruptcy following French intervention in the American War of Independence, and a trade recession coinciding with harvest failure. At a time of growing discontent among the poor, Louis XVI was obliged to call the States-General (a national assembly that had not met since 1614) to consider reform of the tax system, including a reduction in privileges.
The execution of Louis XVI, 21 January 1793. A weak and reactionary king, Louis failed to come to terms with the fact of the Revolution and continued to plot with both French and foreign counter-revolutionaries. Evidence of his intrigues led to his conviction and execution for treason.
x The French Revolution (2 of 3)
The events of 1789
The Third Estate (the commoners) of the States-General declared itself a National Assembly, intending to introduce reform. Louis ordered troops to Paris and Versailles. On 14 July, fearing an attack on Paris and the Assembly, the Paris mob seized the Bastille (a royal fortress and prison) in order to obtain arms. An independent municipal government (commune) and National Guard were established in Paris, and other towns followed suit. Since the army was divided and unreliable, royal authority collapsed. The National Assembly survived.
Following a wave of peasant revolts, the Assembly abolished feudal and other privileges in August 1789. This abolition was confirmed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man. This stated that the natural rights of man and the citizen (liberty, property, security, and the right to resist oppression) could never be given up. All men were free and equal, and equally liable to taxation, and the king derived his authority solely from the will of the people.
France becomes a republic 1791-93
The Assembly prepared a `modern' constitutional government. Henceforth legislative power lay with a new elected assembly, and local government and the legal system were completely reorganized. Religious toleration for Protest-ants and Jews ended the privileged position of the Catholic Church, and the confiscation and sale of Church lands solved the problem of the national debt while a fairer tax system was being devised.
In October 1789 Louis XVI and the Assembly had been forced to leave Versailles for Paris. There the mob, organized by members of political clubs (notably the left-wing Jacobins), could influence events. After a failed attempt to flee the country in 1791, Louis XVI was obliged to approve the new constitution. By the end of 1791 the Revolution had - relatively peacefully - put an end to absolute monarchy and transformed French society.
Yet the Revolution was by no means over. In 1792 foreign powers, anxious to nip the Revolution in the bud before it spread to their own countries, invaded France. This stimulated suspicions of plots to betray the Revolution. A thousand suspected counter-revolutionaries were massacred in the prisons of Paris (September 1792), and France was declared a republic (November). In the following year Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were tried for treason and guillotined.
* LOUIS XIV
* THE ENLIGHTENMENT
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
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The French Revolution (page 3)
ftsTitle
French soldiers firing at civilians after the Storming of the Bastille. The medieval fortress of the Bastille in Paris had long been used to hold political prisoners, but only seven remained when the Paris mob stormed the building on 14 July 1789. The Bastille was seen as a symbol of oppression by the ancien rugime, and its fall a symbol of the Revolution.
The French Revolution (3 of 3)
The Reign of Terror 1793-94
Not all Frenchmen supported the Revolution. Many left France (the so-called umigrus), but many more remained. In 1793 revolt broke out in the Vendue in the west, and also in Normandy and the south. Against the background of civil and foreign war some people - for example the influential journalist Jean-Paul Marat (1743-93) - called for a revolutionary dictatorship.
This was brought about by the Jacobins in the summer of 1793, following the expulsion from the Convention of the moderate Girondin deputies. The Girondins were so called because they were from the Gironde area of southwest France, and their expulsion was effected by the revolutionary mob known as the sans culottes (`without breeches' - working men wore trousers). Marat himself was murdered by Charlotte Corday, a Girondin sympathizer.
Virtually dictatorial powers were assumed by the Committee of Public Safety, of which Maximilien Robespierre (1758-94) was the most prominent member. The Committee unleashed what became known as the `Reign of Terror' against suspected counter-revolutionaries. All over France at least 300 000 people were arrested, and of these about 17 000 were executed.
In the spring of 1794 the Terror intensified. The Committee eliminated its political opponents, including those on the left responsible for a policy of dechristianization. Robespierre - believing that religion was necessary to social stability - introduced a `Cult of the Supreme Being'. Other victims included the moderate Georges Danton (1759-94), himself a former head of the Committee. Suspects' rights were reduced and no mercy shown to those convicted. Fearing for their own lives, and that Robespierre's power was too great, his enemies had him arrested on 27 July 1794 (the coup of 9 Thermidor; and executed. A new regime, a group of five known as the Directory, was established.
The end of the Revolution
The Terror was brought to an end, the Jacobin club closed, and the Paris commune abolished. The more democratic constitution of 1793 was replaced. The Paris mob resented these moves but was powerless against the army, whose support proved crucial to the continuance of the Directory. Frequent military interventions in politics culminated in 1799 in the coup of 18 Brumaire (8 November) on behalf of General Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1800 Bonaparte became first Consul, and in 1804 Emperor Napoleon I, so ending the First Republic. His military dictatorship saw the restoration of central control of local government, the end of representative assemblies, and the creation of a new aristocracy.
The debate on the Revolution
The Revolution divided informed opinion throughout Europe. The views of its opponents were expressed by the Anglo-Irish Edmund Burke (1729-97) in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). Burke denied that there was any virtue in destroying established social institutions, and refused to see any evils in pre-Revolutionary France. He predicted that the Revolution would consume itself in violence. He was answered by the Anglo-American radical, Thomas Paine (1737-1809), whose Rights of Man (1792) defended the right of the nation to reform what was corrupt. The British government, afraid of revolution, persecuted Paine and other radicals. Governments elsewhere repressed reform movements, putting an end to the progress of the Enlightenment.
THE REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR
One of the more radical measures associated with the Revolution was the new calendar introduced in September 1793. Because of its associations with the Church, the Gregorian calendar was replaced by one in which the year was divided into 12 new months, whose names evoked the season; for example, Thermidor (heat) lasted from 19 July to 17 August, and Brumaire (mist) from 22 October to 20 November.
Each month consisted of three `decades' of 10 days. Originally each day was to consist of 10 equal parts. The 5 days left at the end of the year became the sans culottides, feast days in honor of the sans culottes. The sixth day of a leap year was the franciade, on which Frenchmen came from all parts to Paris to celebrate the Revolution and its slogan of `Liberty, Equality and Fraternity'.
The calendar was dated from the declaration of the Republic in France, so Year One ran from September 1792 to September 1793. In 1806 Napoleon restored the Gregorian calendar.
REGIMES AND ASSEMBLIES
Louis XVI 1774-92
States-General May-June 1789
National Assembly June-July 1789
Constituent Assembly 1789-91
Legislative Assembly 1791-92
Convention 1792-95
Directory 1795-99
Consulate 1799-1804
First Empire 1804-14/15555555555804-14/15 1804-14/15
* LOUIS XIV
* THE ENLIGHTENMENT
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
Encyclopedia
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The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (page 1)
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The Battle of Aboukir Bay, 1799. Following the French invasion of Egypt, Napoleon's army of 7000 defeated 18 000 Ottoman Turks. This victory was the more remarkable, given the fact that the French fleet in the Eastern Mediterranean had been annihilated the previous year by Nelson at the Battle of the Nile, cutting off Napoleon's supply line from France.
The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1 of 3)
The French Revolution transformed Europe and the relations of its states with France. From 1792 the French were obliged to defend their Revolution against a series of foreign enemies, who feared the spread of revolutionary ideas to their own countries. For their own part, the French appealed to peoples everywhere to rise up against their rulers. The war became an ideological crusade on both sides. Obliged to wage `total war' at home and abroad, France was soon on the offensive, and its expansion meant the end of some old-established states. Napoleon strengthened the imperialist trend in French policy and his empire became the largest in Europe since that of Rome. French domination inspired `national' resistance, which contributed to the collapse of Napoleon and his empire in 1815. However, Napoleon's downfall was mainly the work of the `Great Powers' - Russia, Prussia, Austria, and particularly Britain.
The First Coalition 1793-97
Those Frenchmen who fled France after 1789 urged foreign monarchs to suppress the Revolution. Eventually in 1792 the Austrians and Prussians invaded France, but were repulsed, and France went onto the offensive. French success, particularly the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands, alarmed Britain, which declared war in 1793. By offering cash subsidies Britain built up the First Coalition against France. The Coalition included most of Europe and all of France's neighbors, but it lacked an effective strategy.
The French introduced conscription, which gave France the largest army in Europe (750 000 men in 1794), and in 1794-95 French armies carried all before them. French leaders put forward the idea of `natural frontiers' to justify their first annexations of territory. One by one the allies settled with France. The brilliant French campaign in Italy in 1796-97 - led by a young general, Napoleon Bonaparte - forced Austria to surrender Belgium in exchange for the previously independent state of Venice. The French, cooperating with local enthusiasts, established `sister republics' in the United Provinces, Italy and Switzerland. Napoleon, having secured the Revolution against foreign enemies, set off to conquer Egypt in 1798.
The Second Coalition 1798-1802
Britain's naval power had enabled it to survive, even to score a number of victories against France. However, if it were to defeat France it needed continental allies. Again using subsidies, Britain built up the Second Coalition, consisting of Russia, the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire, Austria, Portugal and Naples. After some initial successes, the allies were weakened by the mutual jealousies of Austria and Russia. Despite the defeat of the French fleet at the Nile (1798) by the British under Admiral (later Lord) Horatio Nelson (1758-1805), Napoleon returned to Europe, and seized political power in France. Having defeated the Austrians at Marengo (1800) in Italy, Napoleon forced them to recognize French domination of Italy. Britain's other allies were soon forced to settle with France. Nelson's destruction of the Danish fleet at Copenhagen (1801) destroyed the threat posed by a league of neutrals resentful of British efforts to end their trade with France. But Britain found it too expensive to carry on alone, and settled with France (the Peace of Amiens, 1802).
The Third Coalition 1805-07
Peace did not end the antagonisms between Britain and France, or put an end to French expansion. In 1803 Britain declared war again. Napoleon declared himself Emperor in 1804 and proceeded to assemble an army to invade England, but his plans were frustrated by Nelson's defeat of the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar (1805). Yet Britain again depended on European allies. Napoleon's proclamation of himself as king of Italy led Austria, Russia and Naples to join the Third Coalition. Britain again provided subsidies. However, Prussia remained neutral (as it had since 1795), and a number of smaller German states joined Napoleon.
In a lightning campaign, Napoleon's troops left the Channel ports for Germany, marching 800 km (500 mi) in five weeks. Defeating the Austrians at Ulm (October 1805), he occupied Vienna, before defeating an Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz (December). Austria was forced to recognize French supremacy in Italy and Germany.
Prussia decided to restrain Napoleon, but suffered a disastrous defeat at Jena (1806). Prussia lost much territory as Napoleon reorganized Germany: the Holy Roman Empire was abolished and a French satellite organization, the Confederation of the Rhine, was established. In 1807 Russia too was beaten, settling with Napoleon and declaring war on Britain. Austria, having been defeated again in 1809, decided to join France. Napoleon, having divorced Josephine (his first wife), married an Austrian princess.
The Continental System
Napoleon was at the peak of his power in 1807, and determined to destroy Britain by ruining its export trade - the basis of its wealth and so of its continued opposition to France. Napoleon banned the import of British goods into all parts of Europe under French control. This blockade (the Continental System) created serious difficulties for Britain, including an inconclusive war in 1812-14 with the USA over the trading rights of neutrals. However, the System was not effective. Its unpopularity contributed to growing disillusionment with and resentment of French occupation in many parts of Europe.
The battle of Waterloo, shown here in this reenactment, ended Napoleon's rule of France.
The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (2 of 3)
The collapse of the Napoleonic Empire 1807-15
In 1808 Napoleon imposed his brother as king of Spain, sparking off a popular revolt. Henceforth large numbers of French troops were tied down in Spain, fighting a savage guerrilla war. Britain sent an expeditionary force to the Iberian peninsula, and many years of fighting (the Peninsular War) followed. After their victory at Vitoria (1813) under the command of Arthur Wellesley (1769-1852) - later the Duke of Wellington - British troops entered France in 1814.
By that time, French prestige had suffered disastrously in Russia. Relations between the two countries had deteriorated to the point that in 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia. Despite defeating the Russians at Borodino and reaching Moscow, Napoleon could not force the Russians to terms, and was himself obliged to retreat. The bitter winter combined with Russian attacks and the inadequacies of the French logistic system took a terrible toll: only 40 000 of the original French army of 450 000 men returned.
The Russian fiasco stimulated the formation of a Fourth Coalition. This included Prussia and Austria, and was again financed by British subsidies. In France itself the constant drainage of manpower led to growing resistance to conscription, and to Napoleon's rule in general. Fighting on two fronts, Spain and Germany, Napoleon was defeated at Leipzig (1813). In 1814, following the capture of Paris by the allies, he abdicated and was exiled to Elba. However, in March 1815 Napoleon exploited the unpopularity of the new Bourbon king, Louis XVIII, to return to France, seize power and renew the war. His `Hundred Days' ended with his defeat at Waterloo (June 1815) by allied forces under Wellington and the Prussian general, von Blecher. Napoleon was sent to St Helena in the South Atlantic, and Louis XVIII was restored.
The peace settlement
The peace settlement was worked out at Paris and the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15. It was a compromise between restoring pre-Revolutionary Europe, rewarding the victors, and preventing France from again dominating Europe. A ring of strong states was established around France, including a new kingdom of the Netherlands and a Prussian presence in the Rhineland. The Confederation of the Rhine was abolished, but security needs meant that not all the small states were restored. Austria kept Venice, and Russia was rewarded by the acquisition of most of Poland. In order to prevent future threats to their peace settlement, the victorious allies planned to hold regular meetings. The settlement effectively suppressed much radical and nationalist sentiment in Europe, which was to come to the boil in 1848.
* THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
* NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
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Battle of Waterloo
**++*
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The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (3 of 3)
NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
In the 18th century, armies had been relatively small, professional and expensive. Warfare had largely been a matter of siege and maneuver, because troops were too expensive to lose in battle. With their massive conscript armies, the French developed - and Napoleon perfected - new formations and tactics. Napoleon always sought decisive victory, concentrating his troops against his enemy's weakest point. He divided his armies into corps of 25-30 000 men. These could be deployed over a wide front (keeping the enemy guessing as to where the attack would come) and then be reunited before the decisive battle. Napoleon was a master of rapid maneuver, and developed an appropriately flexible logistic system, including living off the land as his troops marched on. In a poor country such as Russia, however, this system left his troops highly vulnerable.
The success of Napoleon's approach was founded on good communications and supply, a vast reservoir of new conscripts, and on his popularity with his troops. This popularity was helped by a system of promotion through the ranks, and many of Napoleon's generals - such as the great Marshal Ney (1769-1815) - had risen in this way.
THE NAPOLEONIC CODE
One of the most permanent achievements of the Revolution was the Napoleonic Code. Codification of the mass of legislation enacted in France since 1789 had begun in 1792. It was completed in 1804, and renamed the Code Napoluon in 1807. The Code restated in legal terms the egalitarian principles of 1789, including religious toleration, and confirmed the abolition of feudal rights. However, it put greater emphasis on the rights of property, reflecting the conservatism of French political life after the Terror. It also stressed the rights of husbands and fathers, reducing the status of women. This reflected Napoleon's personal views.
The Code, one small volume containing 2251 articles, spread the basic principles of the Revolution across Europe. Many states had little choice, since the Code was often imposed by Napoleon on those states incorporated into his empire. It was also adopted by his satellites and allies. In many states the Code survived the fall of Napoleon, and continued to play a vital part in national life. It contributed to the unification of states that before the wars had been divided by different sorts of law. In this way it ensured the permanent impact of the Revolution.
* THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
* NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
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The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (page 3)
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Nationalism in Europe (page 1)
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Giuseppe Garibaldi, whose popular charisma led many to follow him in the cause of Italian unification. With his Redshirts - a band of irregular guerrilla fighters - he was responsible for many of the military successes of the Risorgimento, but his radical republicanism and independent ways often put him at odds with more conservative Italian leaders.
Nationalism in Europe (1 of 2)
Nationalism is based on a feeling of common identity shared by a large group of people with the same language, culture, ethnic origins and history. Nationalism manifests itself politically in a sense of loyalty to a `mother country', particularly where that country has not yet become a sovereign state in its own right. During the 19th century, nationalist sentiment sprung up throughout Europe, and provided the ideological cement for the construction of two new powers in Europe: Germany and Italy. Conversely, the effect of nationalism among peoples such as the Hungarians, Serbs, Poles and Greeks was to encourage rebellion against the larger and more powerful empires that controlled them.
Liberalism and Romanticism were often closely associated with nationalism. Some, although by no means all, 19th-century nationalist movements combined their demands for national freedom or unity with the demands of the middle classes for a liberal form of government. Paradoxically, however, most successful movements for national unity resulted in the formation of states dominated by a strong monarchy.
The revolutions of 1848
Many of the European revolutions of 1848 were associated with nationalist demands. The uprising in Paris on 22 February 1848 led to the overthrow of the Orluans monarchy and the installation of a republican government, and was to inspire revolts right across Europe.
In Italy outbreaks of revolution occurred throughout the Italian peninsula, leading to wholesale expulsion of the Austrians occupying the north. However, disunity among the nationalists led to the Austrians (and the Spanish Bourbons in the south) regaining control.
In the vast, multilingual Austrian Empire, the revolutionaries of 1848 set their sights on overthrowing Austrian rule. The Hungarians, Croats and Czechs all managed to assert their independence from the Austrians and set up their own states for a brief period. However, the old rulers soon returned to power, partly by exploiting the divisions between the various national groupings.
Popular uprisings also occurred in many of the German states, and a liberal `German National Assembly' met in Frankfurt in May, but by the end of 1849 the attempt to construct a constitutional unified German state had ended.
Italian unification
At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Napoleonic Italy was divided into 13
separate states, of which only 2, the Papal States and the kingdom of Sardinia (including Piedmont), were ruled by Italians. Austria dominated the peninsula. Nationalist secret societies such as the Carbonari (`charcoal burners') staged several risings and conspiracies during the 1820s and 30s, but none succeeded in dislodging Austrian rule. Other groups, including the Young Italy movement of Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-72), fared little better.
At the forefront of the Risorgimento (`resurrection') - as the movement for Italian unification came to be known - was Piedmont, which was by far the most industrialized and economically prosperous Italian state. Camillo di Cavour (1810-61), Piedmont's prime minister from 1852, seized every opportunity to advance the cause of Italian unification, and successfully solicited French help in driving the Austrians out of most of northern Italy in 1859.
In 1860 the nationalist guerrilla leader Guiseppe Garibaldi (1807-82) landed in Sicily with an army of 1000 volunteers, and swiftly took control. He crossed to the mainland and swept aside minimal Bourbon resistance in southern Italy. Cavour moved troops to the Papal States in order to assert Piedmontese control of the newly united Italy.
In 1861 the `Kingdom of Italy' comprised the entire peninsula, with the exceptions of Venetia (in the northeast) and Rome. Venetia was eventually acquired from Austria after Italian help had been given to Prussia in the 1866 `Seven Weeks War' (see below). Rome, with the exception of the Pope's own territory of the Vatican, was taken over when the French garrison left in 1870.
German unification
One man, Otto von Bismarck (1815-98), Prussian prime minister (1862-71) and then German chancellor (1871-90), is credited with masterminding the process of German unification. Germany at the close of the Napoleonic Wars existed only as a loosely grouped, weak confederation of 39 states. Economic unity preceded political unification, with the Prussian-led Zollverein (`customs union') being established in 1818. The 1848 revolutions rocked the rulers of states through-out Germany. However, by 1851, having crushed its own revolutionary unrest, Austria rather than Prussia had reverted to the position of dominant power within the reinstated German Confederation. Bismarck determined to change this through a policy of `blood and iron', which unfolded in three main stages.
The first stage involved Prussia allying with Austria against Denmark over the thorny and complicated question of who should control the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. In 1864 Prussia invaded and swiftly defeated Denmark, and then took control of Schleswig, while Austria took Holstein.
In the second stage Bismarck isolated Austria by means of skilful diplomacy and then provoked a war with Austria and various north German states in June 1866. This `Seven Weeks War' culminated in a decisive Prussian victory over Austria at Sadowa. Austria was forced to accept that Prussia was now pre-eminent in north German affairs. The still independent south German states (Bavaria, Werttemberg and Baden) were associated with the new, Prussian-dominated North German Confederation in an economic alliance.
In the final stage, the fears of the southern Germans of possible French aggression were exploited by Bismarck as a means of compelling them to draw closer to Prussia. Bismarck maneuvered France into declaring war on Prussia in 1870 (the Franco-Prussian War). Following the swift and humiliating French defeat, the whole of the `German' area of Europe was finally unified under Prussian control, and Prussia also gained Alsace and Lorraine from France. The new German Empire was proclaimed on 18 January 1871, with the Prussian king declared Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany.
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* WORLD WAR I
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Nationalism in Europe (page 2)
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French troops in action during the Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71. Prussian victory led to German unification and the establishment of the Third Republic in France, whose government agreed to a humiliating peace treaty. Angered by this and by the conservatism of the new government, radical republicans and socialists set up the self-governing Paris Commune. This was bloodily suppressed by French troops in May 1871, and 20 000 communards were killed or executed. (Musue, Versailles)
Nationalism in Europe (2 of 2)
`The Eastern Question'
In Eastern Europe, the nationalist aspirations of the various peoples under foreign domination became confused with the attempts by various of the great European powers to fill the power vacuum being created by the decline of the Ottoman (Turkish) Empire. This was particularly so in the Balkans, where the Turks had ruled a variety of mostly Slavic peoples for centuries, and which were seen by Russia, France and Britain as the key to dominance of the strategically important eastern Mediterranean.
The first crisis arose in Greece, where a popular uprising was put down by the Turks in 1821. The following year a National Greek Assembly declared Greece independent, and liberal and nationalist sympathizers from all over Europe pledged their support. The governments of the European powers remained officially uninvolved, until massacres perpetrated by the Turkish Sultan's troops goaded Russia into declaring its intention to intervene. In 1826, in order to forestall Russian domination in the area, Britain and France put pressure on the Sultan to grant a measure of autonomy to Greece, and when he refused, a joint British and French naval force sunk his fleet in Navarino Bay in 1827. Greek independence was eventually guaranteed by Britain, France and Russia in 1830.
In the previous year Russia had gained some territory and considerable rights and privileges in the Balkans from Turkey. The Russians also turned nationalist sentiments in the region to their advantage with the doctrine of `Pan-Slavism', by which Russia took upon itself the right, as the largest Slav nation, to promote the desires of other Slav peoples for independence. Help to Balkan nationalists tended to coincide with Russian foreign-policy aims, particularly for power in the eastern Mediterranean, and control of the strategically vital entrance to the Black Sea. In other areas, where Russia's own interests were not likely to be furthered by the promotion of local nationalist aspirations, any such stirrings were quickly and firmly crushed - as happened in Russian-ruled Poland in 1830 and 1863.
Although liberal opinion in Britain and France was very much in sympathy with the national aspirations of the Balkan peoples, and appalled by the cruelty with which the Turks put down Pan-Slavist rebellions, the governments of those two countries were more concerned by Russian territorial ambitions in the region. Russian interest in and encroachment on Afghanistan and Persia (present-day Iran) also caused tension with Britain, as it appeared to threaten the security of British India. Austria-Hungary, mean-while, was alarmed at the prospect of Slav nationalism spreading to its own subject peoples, such as the Czechs and Slovaks. British and French fears of Russian ambitions were confirmed when Russia occupied the eastern Balkan territories of Moldavia and Walachia in 1853. The following year the Russians sank a Turkish fleet, and Britain and France sent an expeditionary force to the Crimea, a Russian peninsula in the Black Sea. The Crimean War (1854-56) cost the lives of half a million men, largely owing to disease and military incompetence, and did not in the end forestall Russian ambitions.
Further Russian encroachments into Turkish territory in the Balkans were halted at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. In return, Turkey recognized Serbia, which became the largest independent Slav state in the region. However, Slav nationalists - encouraged by Russia and Serbia - greatly resented having to exchange Turkish for Austro-Hungarian control, as happened in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 led to success for Slav nationalist aspirations: the territory of the Ottoman Empire was much reduced, and Serbia increased its size and strength. Austria was their next target. It was a Slav nationalist who assassinated the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 - an event which precipitated the outbreak of World War I and the final break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into independent nation-states following its defeat in the war.
* THE RISE OF ISLAM
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* WORLD WAR I
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The Expansion of the USA (page 1)
ftsTitle
Emigrants embarking for the USA from Hamburg in 1880. Escaping poverty and sometimes persecution at home, great waves of European immigrants arrived in the USA throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. First came the Irish and Germans, and then the Italians and many nationalities from Central and Eastern Europe.
The Expansion of the USA (1 of 5)
The 19th century saw the transformation of the USA from an undeveloped, rural nation into an industrial giant. Population growth combined with economic and geographical expansion to produce by 1900 a dynamic, ethnically diverse republic stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. This transformation was not accomplished smoothly. In addition to the inevitable problems that accompanied tremendous social dislocation, the USA was confronted at mid-century by a regional conflict over slavery and the rights of the individual states that threatened to destroy the Union. A bloody civil war was the result of this clash between North and South, a war from which the industrial North emerged the victor.
The early national period
Although a majority of Americans welcomed the creation of a stronger national government in 1787, the initial unity produced by the Constitution was quickly undermined by a debate over the future of the country. On the one hand the Federalists, followers of Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804), demanded a sound system of public finance that would attract capital for commerce and manufacturing. On the other hand Democratic-Republicans, supporters of President Thomas Jefferson, hailed the virtues of an agrarian republic in which the states would check the excesses of federal power.
In 1812 aggressive British economic policy and American hopes of conquering Canada led to a second war between the two countries. The conflict dragged on until 1814, but resulted in military stalemate. New England Federalists flirted with treason during this period, thereby hastening the demise of their party. By the mid-1830s most Jeffersonians had become members of President Andrew Jackson's new pro-Southern Democratic Party, which endorsed the idea that the US had a `Manifest Destiny' to expand over the whole of North America.
The westward movement
In spite of increasing industrial growth occasioned by canal and railroad construction after 1825, the USA remained a predominantly agricultural nation until after the Civil War. The aim of many Americans was to possess their own farm. To this end millions of people moved westward during the 19th century, lured from their homes by the prospect of settling on the fertile soils of the Mississippi basin and the Pacific coast. This process resulted in the displacement and settlement on separate, economically depressed reservations of most of the native Indian tribes.
* INDEPENDENCE IN THE AMERICAS
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* WORLD WAR I
* THE POSTWAR SETTLEMENT AND THE DEPRESSION
* WORLD WAR II
* THE COLD WAR
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ftsTitleOverride
The Expansion of the USA (page 2)
ftsTitle
A romantic view of the settlement of the Wild West. Westward expansion accelerated after the introduction of the Homestead Act of 1862, which promised free land for cultivation. The expanding settlement of the West, however, meant disaster for the Indian peoples who lived there.
The Expansion of the USA (2 of 5)
Slavery and the territorial issue
In 1793 a New Englander, Eli Whitney (1765-1825), invented an improved cotton gin to separate seeds from the fibers of the cotton plant. Ten years later President Jefferson purchased the territory of Louisiana from Napoleon for $11.5 million. These events paved the way for the expansion of cotton growing into the southwest and reinforced the need for slaves to work the plantations.
Notwithstanding the development of a domestic abolition movement in the 1830s, most Northerners were unwilling to endanger the Union by agitating the slavery question. However, the US military defeat of Mexico in 1846-48 added a vast tract of land to the national domain and unleashed a bitter debate over whether slavery should be excluded from the new territories (notably California). In 1854 Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act repealing a previous ban on slavery in the northwest. This appeared to open up all the new territories to slave labor, and Northern and Southern hotheads became embroiled in a vicious guerrilla war to make Kansas a state in their own image.
The crisis deepened as Northerners perceived the South's ruling planter class as a threat to their own freedoms and began voting for the new Republican Party. This organization, which represented Northern evangelical sentiment and economic interests, demanded Federal prohibition of slavery expansion. Southerners, on the other hand, believed their slave-based society to be under attack from abolitionists. When the Democratic Party split into Northern and Southern factions over the slavery issue, the Republican candidate, Abraham Lincoln (1809-65), won the 1860 presidential election. The seven Deep South states responded by seceding from the Union and forming an independent Confederacy.
When Confederates bombarded Federal troops at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, in April 1861, most Americans assumed the conflict would be brief. They were wrong. In spite of serious disadvantages, the South was able to prolong the issue for four bloody years. Six hundred thousand men - White and Black - perished in this, the first great modern war in history/
The North's triumph in the Civil War preserved the Union, ended slavery, and confirmed the dominance of the North's free-labor system. But it also created new problems. How should the South be reintegrated into the nation and what was to be done about 4 million ex-slaves (formally liberated by the 13th Amendment to the Constitution in 1865)? Radical Republicans hoped that after Lincoln's assassination on 14 April 1865 his successor, Andrew Johnson, would join them in seeking to reconstruct Southern society before readmitting Southern delegates to Congress. In fact Johnson, a Tennessean, proved to be an ally of the defeated planter class. A fierce political struggle evolved during which moderate and Radical Republicans united to give Southern Blacks the vote.
During the 1870s Deep South states with large Black populations sent Black delegates to Congress for the first time in US history. However, after the onset of economic recession in 1873, the Northern electorate lost interest in Reconstruction, and the Republicans abandoned their Southern allies to the racist White majority. During the 1890s Southern Blacks were deprived of the vote by state laws, and they remained second-class citizens until the mid-20th century.
Between 1880 and 1900 the USA emerged as a major industrial power. Large corporations such as Standard Oil and US Steel took advantage of new urban markets for manufactures and raw materials. Unprecedented numbers of immigrants, many of them from southern and eastern Europe, journeyed to the USA to take up jobs produced by postwar economic growth. By 1900 the nation's population totaled 76.1 million, more than double what it had been 30 years previously.
An originally insignificant, parochial republic was now on the threshold of claiming an imperial role. This had been hinted at as early as 1823 by the Monroe Doctrine (enunciated by President James Monroe), which had warned European nations not to seek further colonies in the New World. In 1867 the USA purchased Alaska from Russia, and in 1898 assumed control over Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines after winning a brief, jingoistic war against Spain. Not all Americans were pleased with their country's aggressive rise to great-power status, but neither they nor the rest of humanity could deny that the USA had at last arrived on the world stage.
* INDEPENDENCE IN THE AMERICAS
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* WORLD WAR I
* THE POSTWAR SETTLEMENT AND THE DEPRESSION
* WORLD WAR II
* THE COLD WAR
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US territory and Civil war
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The Expansion of the USA (page 5)
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The battle of Gettysburg, shown here in this reenactment, was a turning point for the North in the Civil War. Over 48,000 soldiers were killed or wounded in this 4 day battle.
The Expansion of the USA (5 of 5)
THE CIVIL WAR
The Upper South's decision to join the Confederacy when war broke out bolstered the region's military effort. Virginia furnished the most talented strategist of the period, Robert E. Lee (1807-70). Indeed, until 1863 Southern generalship as a whole was markedly superior to the North's, particularly in the vital eastern theater.
For most of 1861-63 the Northern cause looked bleak. Union armies suffered a string of serious reversals. Lincoln himself was attacked by fellow Republicans for his tentative approach to the war, and particularly for his reluctance to alienate the loyal slave states (Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri) by tackling the slavery question. However, on 1 January 1863 Lincoln signed the famous Emancipation Proclamation declaring that all slaves outside Union lines were free.
On 4 July 1863 the Union army of General Ulysses S. Grant (1822-85) finally broke through in the west by taking the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg. The previous day Lee had been repulsed at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. These two defeats sealed the fate of the Confederacy. Over the next two years the armies of Grant and William T. Sherman (1820-91) ground down the rebels in Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas. On 9 April 1865 Lee surrendered at Appomattox. The dream of an independent Southern nation was over.
French officers received by a tribal king in West Africa c. 1870. The 'scramble for Africa' in the 1880s and 1890s resulted in huge areas of the continent being carved up between the European powers. Possession was often a matter of whose army first arrived in an area.
The Peak of Empire (1 of 4)
The 19th century witnessed one of the most remarkable events in world history. In 1800 most people in the world were self-governing. By 1914 about one quarter of the globe had been taken over as colonies by half a dozen states. At the time many people argued that imperialism was needed to increase trade and find new materials for the economies of Europe. Others wanted to gain more territories to increase their strategic power in relation to other states. In the 19th century the various motives of the imperialists - economic, political and strategic - came together and encouraged the drive for Empire.
By the late 18th century various European empires had been established but these had either been in relatively under-populated areas, such as Canada and Australia, or had already shown signs of growing independence, as in the United States (1776) and South America in the early 19th century. The one serious exception was the rule of the British East India Company.
The British in India
By 1805 the East India Company was dominant in India. Wars against Nepal (1814-16), Sind (1843) and the Sikh kingdom of the Punjab (1849) extended the frontiers to the natural boundaries of the subcontinent in the north. To the east the British had annexed the Burmese empire by 1886.
Within India the traditional system of landholding was destroyed and the British introduced private ownership. Production of food did not keep pace with the growth in population (some 190 million in 1871) and famine was a continuous threat. As a result the land quickly passed into the hands of relatively few large landowners, creating a large number of landless peasants.
The Indian Mutiny was the last effort of traditional India to oppose British rule. Princes, landlords and peasants were all united by the speed and tactlessness of the changes imposed by the British. The revolt began in 1857 as a mutiny of the Company's Indian soldiers. This spark ignited into rebellion all those who resented the growing British interference in Indian customs and believed that the introduction of Western education would destroy the indigenous culture of India. Economic tensions such as those arising out of the increased payment of land tax also played their part. Opposition to the British centered around the large number of rulers, including the Mogul emperor himself, who had been dispossessed by the Company. The British brutally ended the revolt in 1858 after 14 months of bitter struggle.
After the Indian Mutiny the British government took direct control of India, and embarked on a program of modernization. By 1927 92 000 km (57 000 mi) of roads had been built; education in English was introduced; and, most importantly, a railway network was constructed. The railways made possible the exploitation of Indian raw materials and the introduction of cash crops, such as tea. On the other hand, the British refused or failed to modernize industry, destroying, for example, the Indian cotton industry so that it could not compete with the British.
Fears of a Russian threat to the Indian subcontinent led to ill-fated British expeditions to Afghanistan in 1839-42 and again in 1878-80. The fiercely independent Afghan tribesmen managed to oust the British, and their country remained as a buffer between the British and Russian Empires.
British troops in the Boer War (1899-1902). The guerrilla tactics of the Boers initially proved successful against superior British forces. To counter these tactics, the British devastated the countryside and rounded up Boer women and children into concentration camps, where at least 20 000 died of disease.
The Peak of Empire (2 of 4)
European imperialism
After 1870 there was a rush to acquire colonial possessions by the major European powers. Two major areas of the world were almost entirely divided up: Africa and the Pacific. There were a number of reasons for this striking change.
The development of commerce in the 19th century created a global economic system. Many formerly remote areas of the world were being settled and developed: Canada, the USA west of the Mississippi, Australia and New Zealand. Ancient civilizations - such as Persia (Iran), China and Japan - were being opened to European penetration. In Africa and Asia missionaries and traders were arguing the enormous potential value of colonies as a treasure house of souls and raw materials.
The second major factor was the development of new technologies that depended on raw materials found mostly in remote places: for example, the motor car depended on oil and rubber, and copper from Africa and South America was needed for the new electrical industry. In addition the new mass consumption of sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa and fruit led to the development of tropical plantation economies. So the scramble for natural resources provided a fresh impetus for expansion.
In Europe there was increasing competition between the old imperial powers - Britain and France - and the emerging nations, especially Germany and Italy. Each feared being left behind by its rivals. Missionaries, traders, military and naval men and the public came together in the European capitals to press for imperial advances.
* THE THIRD WORLD AND THE DEVELOPED WORLD
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* DECOLONIZATION
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p432-3
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The Peak of Empire (page 3)
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The Peak of Empire (3 of 4)
The scramble for empire
Before the 1880s the Africans, aided by the climate, had largely resisted European conquest, even forcing the Portuguese out in 1690. Even in the late 19th century the Ashanti, the Zulu and the Abyssinians were capable of strong resistance, but the balance of military technology was now decisively in favor of Europe. Large areas of the globe, particularly in Africa and Oceania, were carved up between the Western powers. The French gained most of north and west Africa as well as Madagascar and Indochina. Germany acquired an empire in the Cameroons, Togoland, South West Africa, Tanganyika, China, part of New Guinea and some Pacific islands (all lost to the Allies after World War I). Italy obtained Libya, Eritrea and part of Somaliland, but failed in 1896 to conquer Abyssinia. The British made the greatest gains, including Egypt (although nominally still part of the Ottoman Empire), the Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, British Somaliland, Nigeria, Ghana, the Rhodesias and Nyasaland, as well as strategically important areas of the Pacific such as Singapore, Malaya and Fiji. The British also consolidated their rule of South Africa with their victory in the Boer War (1899-1902) over the Boers (or Afrikaners: settlers of Dutch descent).
The old empire of the Dutch remained in Indonesia, while the Portuguese reasserted control of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea, although their largest colony, Brazil, had become independent in 1822. What remained of the Spanish Empire after the successful wars of independence in its South American colonies (1810-29), however, was largely taken over by the USA after a brief war in 1898. The Americans acquired Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines from Spain, and also the Panama Canal, Hawaii and other Pacific bases.
The imposition of colonial rule varied. In the Congo the personal rule of King Leopold of Belgium led to horrific atrocities. In South West Africa the Germans massacred the Hereros to impose their rule. Many Africans revolted against colonial rule: for example, the Ndebele and Shona rose in rebellion in Rhodesia (1896-97) and the Zulus in South Africa (1906). These movements, while trying to maintain traditional independence, also prefigured future nationalist movements.
China
Once a great empire, by the 19th century China was politically weak and corrupt. It r
emained closed to outsiders until in the first Opium War of 1839-42 the British forced the Chinese to allow the traffic of drugs into China, and established five British-dominated treaty ports. British and French victory in the second Opium War (1856-60) forced the Chinese to open further ports. China seemed doomed to disappear under colonial rule. Russia exercised influence in Manchuria, the Germans carved out bases in the north, Britain enlarged its Hong Kong colony, and the rising power of Japan annexed Taiwan in 1894-95 and Korea in 1910 after defeating the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905.
The Western powers were able to unite to put down the Boxer Rising and to occupy and loot Beijing (Peking) in 1900, but they were unable to agree how to divide the immense Chinese empire. As a result China remained independent, but the strains of foreign interference helped cause the final collapse of the world's most ancient civilization in 1911.
* THE THIRD WORLD AND THE DEVELOPED WORLD
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* DECOLONIZATION
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Empires, major overseas
**++*
p432-4
Imperial acquisitions 1876-1914
During this period, nearly one fifth of the Earth's land surface was colonized. The shares taken by the various imperial powers are shown in this pie chart.
The Peak of Empire (4 of 4)
Imperial rivalry and World War I
There is no simple connection between imperialism and the outbreak of World War I. Colonial disputes - such as the Fashoda Incident in 1898 between the French and British, and the crises over Morocco in 1906 and 1911, involving Germany - were successfully defused. Nevertheless, the drive for empire and control of the world economy created new antagonisms between the major powers. The rivalries between the powers, formerly confined to Europe, were now global and imperial.
The legacy of imperialism
Imperialism was both a massive movement and a very brief experience for those involved. The entire experience of colonialism in many parts of the world can be fitted within a single life - decolonization started after World War II, accelerated in the 1960s and was virtually complete by the 1980s. For most people the cultural impact of imperialism was very limited, though a minority did have Western education and many of these later became the leaders of anti-imperialism.
Perhaps the most significant long-term impact of imperialism is continuing resentment against the imposition of Western ideas and against the economic dominance of the West over large areas of the Third World.
* THE THIRD WORLD AND THE DEVELOPED WORLD
* THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EMPIRES
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* DECOLONIZATION
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The Peak of Empire (page 4)
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5;__e
p434-1
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Industrial Society (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Paris Exposition of 1900. After the Great Exhibition of 1851 in the Crystal Palace in London other European countries arranged their own showcases for industry, technology and imperial achievement.
Industrial Society (1 of 2)
Although the growth of industrial society created great wealth and caused nations to become rich, the cost in terms of human suffering was very great. The development of industry, especially in the textile factories and mines, brought long hours of work in harsh conditions. Child labor is often seen as one of the worst aspects of industrialization, although most children in pre-industrial society also had to work exhausting hours. The principle of laissez faire (no state intervention in the regulation of industrial and economic affairs) was extremely influential, but campaigners such as Lord Shaftesbury in Britain secured legislation to limit the employment of young and female workers. During the second half of the 19th century improvements were also made in housing conditions and public health, and free education for children began to be introduced on a wider scale. Most of these reforms were introduced by the wealthy and powerful who controlled government. But many working people also agitated for improvements, and formed themselves into trade unions to achieve better pay and working conditions. There was also agitation for all adults to have a vote, which in many countries was restricted to men who owned property.
Working conditions
Campaigns for a 10-hour working day for all started up in many countries. In the USA, a 10-hour day became mandatory in New Hampshire in 1847, and in several other states soon after, but loopholes in the law made it ineffective. In Britain the 10-hour day was agreed in 1874, but in Japan, for example, it was not until 1916 that hours for women and children under 12 were eventually restricted to 11 per day. By the beginning of the 20th century, many children in the USA still spent 12 to 14 hours a day in the textile mills, and, by the time of World War I, despite being the world's largest and richest industrial state, the USA had far fewer laws than the industrialized nations of Europe for the protection of workers and the regulation of hours and conditions of employment.
Although various countries established work houses in the 19th century for those with no means of support, conditions in poor houses tended to be punitive. The first steps to what we now think of as the welfare state came with state insurance schemes, by which workers and employers paid regular premiums into a state-run scheme. Should a worker become sick or unemployed, payments were made to them out of the scheme. Old-age pensions were also often paid out of such schemes. The first such schemes were introduced in Germany in 1883-89, and in Britain and Russia, for example, in the years prior to World War I.
* EDUCATION
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT AND RIGHT
* CAPITAL AND LABOR
* THE WOMEN'S MOVEMENT
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
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ftsTitleOverride
Industrial Society (page 2)
ftsTitle
Child workers on a spinning machine in the USA, c. 1907/8. At this time many children in the USA were still working 12 or even 14 hours per day, although in other industrialized countries far tighter controls on the use of child labor had been instituted.
Industrial Society (2 of 2)
Social reforms
As industrial towns and cities developed, extensive areas of jerry-built housing appeared, which quickly turned into squalid slums. In Britain the ravages of cholera in the 1830s and 40s at last prompted government action in the form of the first Public Health Act (1848). Later, demolition of slums and the rebuilding of better standard working-class housing became a function of local government. In 1882 the powers of local authorities were in creased, leading to schemes for adequate sewage disposal, water supply and street lighting.
In the USA legislation was introduced in 1901 to improve conditions, but this was not particularly effective, and the corruption of some administrations allowed such conditions to continue unchecked. However, by 1920 many of the worst abuses had disappeared.
By the beginning of World War I, most major European cities had some experience of slum-clearance schemes, and of increased provision of public health and other municipal facilities. In France, the Second Empire (1852-70) saw the large-scale demolition of slum housing, and of rebuilding, especially in Paris. Even in Tsarist Russia a number of civic improvements were made. In Japan, although by 1907 both Tokyo and Osaka had waterworks and other public facilities, many cities still remained without amenities such as complete modern sewage schemes.
Education
As manufacturing processes became more complex, the need for an educated workforce led for the first time to state pro vision of more or less universal and compulsory systems of elementary education in most industrialized countries. The Church remained involved in educational provision, and serious conflicts sometimes arose between Church and state - particularly in France and Germany.
In Britain, cheap non-denominational elementary education became widely avail able from 1870. With further acts in 1902 and 1918, a free system for all was established with increased access to secondary education. Provision of free education in the USA predated its arrival in Europe. However, most Northern states were better off than the South. Many private schools were run by religious bodies in the USA, but there were no arguments between Church and state over control of education. In Japan, compulsory, state-run elementary schools were set up from 1872, with a curriculum laid down by the government.
Trade unions
Attempts by workers to organize themselves in defense of their own particular trade were made in all industrialized countries. Trade unions often had another function, providing support for members in time of hardship or misfortune. Most governments saw the uncontrolled association of working people as a threat - particularly with the emergence of socialism as an ideology and political force.
In the USA, `combinations' of workers had begun to appear during the last few years of the 18th century, developing into unions in the 1820s and 30s. From the mid-19th century, American unions began to amalgamate in larger federations, including the National Labor Union (1866), the Knights of Labor (1869), the American Federation of Labor (1886) and the Industrial Workers of the World (1905) - the `Wobblies'. With the exception of the AFL these organizations were socialist-inspired. Despite opposition in the courts and from many employers, and the bad publicity resulting from various anarchist-inspired acts of violence, trade unionism in the USA proved durable and effective, but only the AFL survived into the period following World War I. Socialism in the USA also reached its peak before 1914.
Britain was the first European country to allow `combinations' of workmen (1824), although it took some time for trade unions to become both accepted and sustainable. The failure of the scheme of the utopian socialist factory owner, Robert Owen, for a `Grand National Consolidated Trade Union' in the 1830s, and the case of the Tolpuddle Martyrs (1834), both bear witness to these difficulties. It was not until 1868 that the Trades Union Congress (TUC) first met.
In France, the first official acceptance of trade unions came in 1864, and in 1884 the Third Republic accorded full legal recognition. The Confuduration Gunurale du Travail (CGT) was formed in 1895 as a united national body, and it resolutely refused to align itself with any political grouping. Separate Catholic trade unions were also set up. By 1913 there were 1 million trade-union members in France.
From 1886 onwards the size of the union movement throughout Europe was suddenly swelled by the recruitment of thousands of semi-skilled or unskilled members stirred into action by an economic slump. Previously these workers had not been sought or accepted by many of the older craft unions. In Britain, for example, membership of the TUC had increased to 4 million by 1913. In 1900 the forerunner of the British Labour Party was formed with the purpose of sending working-class representatives to Parliament. Germany's trade-union movement, legalized after Bismarck's departure from power in 1890, also grew rapidly. As in France, Catholic and other Christian workers had their own unions, and the original `craft' unions also remained a distinct group. However, the socialist trade unions had by far the largest membership.
All such activity was suppressed as subversive in Russia throughout the 19th century, and those unions that did exist did so in secret. For a short period following the revolution of 1905, unions of a limited kind were permitted, but repression quickly resumed. Metal workers and railway employees attempted to form unions in Japan in the late 1890s, but early efforts met with repression. The `Yuaikai', a national labour organization, was set up in 1912. It began as a kind of self-help group, but in 1919, renamed as the Federation of Labor, it rapidly began to expand its membership.
The spread of suffrage
With the transition from an agricultural to an industrial economy, a major transfer of political power took place. The land owning classes were compelled to share their once exclusive access to government, first with the newly rich manufacturers and industrialists, and eventually with an increasingly broad section of the middle and working classes. This development led to the adoption of the principle of universal suffrage, in which every adult citizen had the right to vote.
The basis of the US system of government, the Declaration of Independence (1776), enshrined the ideas of equality and democratic rights for all - although in practice most states imposed property qualifications for the right to vote and stand for office. All White men had voting rights by the end of the Civil War (1865), and the 14th amendment to the US Constitution sought to extend the vote to all Black citizens. However, this had little real effect. It was not until 1920 that all women throughout the USA gained the vote. Ideas of democracy had been spread in Europe by the French Revolution of 1789 and the revolutions of 1848. By the end of the 19th century, the principles of democratic government had been accepted in most industrialized Western European countries: these principles included the right of public association, and some measure of freedom of speech and of the press. Until the 20th century, in many countries the right to vote and to be elected was restricted to men who owned property.
SPREAD OF UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE
Men Women
Britain 1918 1918 (over 30)
1928 (over 21)
France 1871 1945
(briefly in 1848)
Germany 1870 1918
Russia 1917 1917
Japan 1925 1945 1945555555555555555555555555555
* EDUCATION
* GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT AND RIGHT
* CAPITAL AND LABOR
* THE WOMEN'S MOVEMENT
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
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World War I (page 1)
ftsTitle
The sinking by U-boats of three British warships in 1914. Despite the effectiveness of the German U-boat campaign, by the end of the war the British navy had the upper hand at sea, starving Germany of essential supplies.
World War I (1 of 3)
By 1914 Europe was divided into two armed camps based upon political, territorial and economic rivalries. In the center of Europe was a recently unified Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary since 1879 and Italy since 1882, fearful of attack from France and Russia (allied since 1894), yet threatening expansion against either or both. Britain, traditionally aloof, viewed German industrial development, naval expansion and colonial ambitions with distrust and since 1904 had been associated with Germany's rivals.
On 28 June 1914 the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated in Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia, a region of the Balkans then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Austrians - supported by the Germans, who feared for the disintegration of their ally - blamed the newly independent neighboring state of Serbia and threatened to attack. The Serbs in turn appealed for aid from their fellow Slavs in Russia, who began to mobilize their vast army.
Fearing attack, Germany put into action a strategy known as the Schlieffen Plan, and declared war on both Russia and France. The Plan was designed to knock out France (Russia's ally) before the Russians completed mobilization, so avoiding a two-front war. As German troops crossed into neutral Belgium as a preliminary to their attack on France, Britain (which had guaranteed Belgian independence) declared war on Germany.
The battle lines were drawn. On the one side were the Allies (Britain, France and Russia), and on the other the Central Powers (Germany and Austro-Hungary). Italy held back. By 4 August Europe had been plunged into a conflict that was to last for over four years, killing an estimated 20 million people.
Opening moves
Everyone expected a short war, but previous military plans soon became irrelevant. The French, intent on recovering the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine (lost to the Germans in 1870), mounted a major attack around Metz on 14 August, only to suffer enormous casualties. Meanwhile the Germans swept into Belgium towards northeastern France, aiming to take Paris in a huge outflanking movement. However, the Germans, with large distances to cover, lost momentum in the broiling heat of summer. This allowed the French to scrape together a new army to defend Paris, counterattacking across the River Marne in early September to force the Germans back. Both sides then tried to outflank the other to the north, but neither could gain advantage. The rival armies dug in and, by October, had created a line of trenches from the Channel to the Swiss border.
By then the Germans had been forced to divert armies to the east. The Russians had initially made a ponderous advance into East Prussia in August, but were defeated in a series of battles around Tannenberg. Farther south the Russians were more successful, pushing the Austrians back in Galicia, necessitating a German reinforcement to prevent defeat. By Christmas 1914 a two-front war had become a reality for Germany.
The trench nightmare
Warfare on the Western Front was characterized by the trench system. This emerged to a large extent because of new weapons that gave the advantage to the defender. If one side wished to attack - as Britain and France did in order to liberate northeastern France and Belgium - their soldiers had to do so through mud, across barbed wire and into the teeth of machine guns and quick-fire artillery. In 1915, as casualties mounted alarmingly, the nature of the war changed, forcing all the major combatants to raise large armies and to mobilize their societies to produce new armaments. Anglo-French offensives failed to break the deadlock in the west, while on the Eastern Front the situation, although more fluid, similarly denied victory to either side.
Instead, the war expanded. In October 1914 the Turks declared war on the Allies, and in May 1915 Italy - in return for Allied promises of territorial gains from Austria-Hungary - declared war on the Central Powers, opening up new fronts that drained resources. In mid-1915 the Germans forced the Russians back through Poland, taking pressure off Germany's eastern border, and in October Bulgaria joined the Central Powers. Only in Serbia was a decisive campaign fought: by December 1915 the country had been conquered by the Central Powers.
The nightmare deepened in 1916. In February the Germans made an attack around Verdun on the River Meuse, designed to 'bleed France white'. The French obliged by pouring in reserves until, by December, the fighting had cost each side about 700000 men. On 1 July the British tried to break through on the River Somme, losing 57000 soldiers in the first few hours; by November this figure had risen to 460000. On the Eastern Front it was even worse: a Russian offensive in June enjoyed initial success near the Carpathian Mountains, only to be turned back three months later at a cost of a million men. The Russian Army came perilously close to collapse.
Things were no better in 1917: after a failed French offensive in Champagne in April, elements of the French Army mutinied, while at Passchendaele in July the British entered a nightmare of mud that cost a further half million casualties. Only on the Austrian-Italian front was there a breakthrough of the stalemate, with the massive defeat of the Italians at Caporetto.
Canadian forces in April 1917, marching across 'no-man's-land', the area that separated the trenches of both sides. During the deadlock of trench warfare soldiers were employed in offensives that resulted in the gain of a few hundred meters of no-man's-land but at the cost of hundreds of thousands of lives.
@ # World War I (2 of 3)
Alternatives to trench deadlock
In such circumstances alternatives to attritional deadlock were sought. Britain, for example, devoted part of her effort to attacks against the outer edge of the Central Powers, searching for weaknesses. As early as 1914 British forces had seized many of Germany's colonies in Africa, but a greater opportunity arose when Turkey came into the war.
Already regarded as the 'sick man' of Europe, a knock-out blow against Turkey would, it was argued, open up the southern flank of the Central Powers. In April 1915 a seaborne attack was made on the Gallipoli peninsula, on the Dardanelles Straits between the Aegean and Black Seas, with the main aim of taking Constantinople (now Istanbul). It failed, at a cost of 265000 Allied troops, many of them Australian and New Zealand volunteers. A similar campaign in Mesopotamia (now Iraq) ended in disaster at Kut, on the road to Baghdad, in April 1916. Only later, in Mesopotamia and Palestine (the latter aided by an Arab revolt coordinated by T.E. Lawrence, 1888-1935), was success achieved, but the costs were high and resources diverted from the war in France.
Other alternatives were also tried, using the sea and air to reinforce the pressures of conflict on land. At sea, fleet actions were rare - the only major engagement between the British and Germans, at Jutland in May 1916, ended in stalemate - but from the start of the war both maritime powers attempted to impose blockades on their rivals. Britain was successful, but Germany was not.
The German U-boat (submarine) offensive caused heavy British losses, but in 1917, with a declaration of unrestricted warfare against any ships suspected of trading with Britain, it helped to trigger a declaration of war against the Central Powers by the USA. Using protected convoys and new anti-submarine weapons, the British gradually gained the initiative. By late 1918 the British blockade of Germany had led to starvation and social unrest, but that year the Central Powers gained the Ukraine with its rich harvests. Germany mounted bombing raids on England by Zeppelin airships and aircraft, but they had little effect on the war effort. In the end, whoever won the land battles would prevail, and this meant looking to new weapons and tactics to break the trench deadlock.
* NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS
* THE POSTWAR SETTLEMENT AND THE DEPRESSION
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World War I (page 3)
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World War I (3 of 3)
New weapons and tactics
In 1915 the Germans used poison gas at Ypres, and the British soon reciprocated, but generally gas led to no major breakthroughs. On the Somme in 1916 Britain first deployed the tank as a means of crossing the mud and barbed wire of no-man's-land between the trenches and countering the effects of machine guns. However, it was not until Cambrai in November 1917 that the full offensive potential of massed tanks began to be seen. On this occasion the Germans counterattacked using select groups of 'storm troops' to infiltrate rather than attack head on. By the end of 1917 the ingredients for tactical success were emerging.
Allied victory
By the end of 1917 the balance of power between the two sides had shifted. In late 1917 Russia dissolved into revolutionary chaos and the Germans took the opportunity to attack with decisive results: by March 1918 a peace treaty between the two countries had been signed. This enabled the Germans to concentrate their forces in the west for a major assault on the British and French before American troops arrived in Europe in large numbers.
The German offensive enjoyed some success in March, using the new storm-trooper tactics tried out at Cambrai, but by the middle of April Allied forces had rallied and stopped the advance. In August they moved onto the offensive, using tanks supported by ground-attack aircraft and, significantly, involving the first of the newly arrived American divisions. Elsewhere, the Central Powers began to crumble, first in the Middle East, where British troops took Jerusalem and Damascus and defeated the Turks, then in Italy, where the Austro-Hungarians were defeated at Vittorio Veneto and forced to seek terms. By November the Germans were isolated. With public confidence in the government evaporating, Communism spreading from the East and the Allies closing in, the German Kaiser fled to Holland and an armistice was arranged. At 11 AM on 11 November 1918 the fighting ceased.
Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik revolution and founder of the USSR. This idealized portrait was painted in 1930.
The Russian Revolutions (1 of 2)
At the turn of the 20th century Russia was a feudal state. Tsar Nicholas II ruled, as his ancestors had ruled before him, as an autocratic monarch. Nicholas had the backing of a large and inefficient bureaucracy, but remained supreme. His will was enforced by the state police and the army, and his officials controlled education and censored the press. Dissent was ruthlessly crushed. It was a situation ripe for revolution.The vast majority of Russian subjects were poverty-stricken peasants, controlled through `land captains' appointed by the government. Although serfdom (virtual ownership of the peasants by the land-owning classes) had been abolished in 1861, the peasants were closely bound to the land by a communal system of land holding.
Nevertheless, increasing numbers migrated to the cities, for Russia began to industrialize rapidly in the first decade of the 20th century with the aid of Western, particularly French, capital. Life for the 15 million or so members of the urban working class was harsh. Housing and conditions in the factories were poor, providing fertile ground for the growth of radical and revolutionary political parties. The two most important such parties were the Social Democrats and the Social Revolutionaries. The effective leader of the former was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known as Lenin (1870-1924).
The roots of revolution
In 1904-5 Russia fought and lost a war with Japan. Even before this, unrest had been growing in both urban and rural areas. The defeat at the hands of the Japanese precipitated a revolution. On `Bloody Sunday' (22 January 1905) troops opened fire on a peaceful demonstration near the Tsar's Winter Palace in the capital, St Petersburg (now Leningrad). About 1000 protesters - including women and children - were killed. This was followed by a general strike, peasant uprisings in the countryside, rioting, assassinations and army mutinies. In October 1905 the Tsar agreed to elections to a Duma, or parliament. This rallied moderate political reformers to the side of the government, which was able to crush the revolt.
The first two Dumas proved to be too radical for the Tsar's taste, but in 1907 a conservative Duma was elected after electoral changes. Some reforms did take place under the chief minister, Petr Arkadievich Stolypin (1863-1911), who curbed the power of the land captains and helped to create a small class of peasants who owned their own land. However, Stolypin was unpopular with both Left and Right, and was assassinated.
World War I placed Russian society under tremendous strain. After three years of war the army had suffered 8 million casualties and over 1 million men had deserted. Inflation was rife and the peasants began to stop sending their produce to the cities, leading to food shortages. Respect for the Imperial government - which was seen to be dominated by the corrupt and debauched monk Grigori Efimovich Rasputin (c. 1872-1916) - had crumbled and revolutionary propaganda began to spread among the soldiers and workers.
On 8 March 1917 revolution broke out in Petrograd (as St Petersburg had been renamed in 1914). Soviets (councils) of soldiers, workers and peasants were set up all over Russia. On 15 March the Tsar abdicated and a moderate provisional government was set up. In the summer of 1917 Aleksandr Fyodorovich Kerenski (1881-1970) became the chief minister, but the powerful Petrograd soviet was controlled by Lenin's Bolsheviks. On 7-8 November (25-26 October in the old Russian calendar) Kerenski was ousted in a coup led by Lenin.
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
Lenin had studied the ideas of Karl Marx and aimed to replace capitalism with a Communist workers' state. He decided that the Russian people needed to be led by a well-educated, dedicated revolutionary elite. His opponents in the Social Democratic Party, who wished to build a mass party, were dubbed Mensheviks (or the minority), although in fact it was the followers of Lenin, the Bolsheviks (or majority), who formed the smaller group.
When the March revolution began, Lenin was in exile in Switzerland, but in April 1917 he was allowed by the Germans to return to Russia in a sealed train. He immediately began to plot the downfall of the provisional government, which had misguidedly decided to continue the war with Germany and was slow in introducing land reform. Lenin's promise of `bread, peace and land' won many to the Bolshevik cause. After he seized power in November 1917, Lenin moved against rival socialist groups, using the Cheka (secret police) as a weapon, and executed the deposed Tsar and his family.
The Bolsheviks were forced to accept a harsh peace with Germany at Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, but this allowed the Bolsheviks to turn their attention to the civil war that had begun in Russia. The `Reds' were opposed by the `Whites' - a loose coalition of democrats, socialists and reactionaries, united only by their opposition to Lenin - and by armies sent by Britain, France, Japan and the USA.
However, the various White factions were unable to coordinate their strategy, and they were defeated piecemeal by the Red Army created by Leon Trotsky (1879-1940), a former Menshevik. By mid-1920 it was clear that the Bolsheviks had triumphed. Russia was then attacked by Poland, which was intent on seizing territory in western Russia. The Red Army weathered the attack and then advanced as far as Warsaw before suffering a defeat on the Vistula. During the civil war the Red Army also reconquered the various non-Russian areas of the former Tsarist empire; these had formed their own republics in 1918. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was formally established in 1922.
A propaganda poster commemorating the storming of the Winter Palace in the October Revolution. Many propaganda posters were distributed by the Third International, an association of national Communist parties (also known as the Comitern), which promoted world revolution. It was largely a tool for Soviet control over Communist parties in other countries.
The Russian Revolutions (2 of 2)
Economic problems and the NEP
In November 1917 the new Bolshevik government faced many economic problems. They divided up the old estates, giving the land to peasants, which gained them considerable support. In June 1918 Lenin was forced to introduce `War Communism', by which there was wholesale nationalization and state control of agriculture. This led to the collapse of industrial production and serious food shortages. In March 1921, after a serious naval mutiny at Kronstadt, the New Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced. This returned small businesses to private hands and allowed farmers to sell their crops. Previously, surplus produce had simply been requisitioned by the state, but now a class of kulaks (affluent peasant farmers) emerged. The NEP improved both industrial and agricultural output.
The death of Lenin in 1924 initiated a power struggle among his successors. By 1929 Joseph Stalin had emerged victorious and he remained the unchallenged ruler until his death in 1953. His chief rival had been Trotsky, who had advocated spreading revolution across Europe. In the mid-1920s Trotsky was eased out of power and eventually went into exile in Mexico, where he was murdered in 1940 by a Spanish Communist, probably acting for Stalin.
Stalin's policy of building `socialism in one country' was undoubtedly more realistic, given the weakness of the USSR. Stalin aimed to catch up with the Western capitalist powers by a crash program of industrialization and agricultural collectivization. This policy was to cause untold suffering to the Soviet people.
In 1928 Stalin ordered that land be taken away from its peasant owners and used to create collective farms, which were supposed to be more efficient as well as egalitarian. In the process the kulak class was destroyed, with perhaps 10 million deaths in 10 years. The disruption caused by the collectivization program led to famine.
The first of the Five-Year Plans to improve Soviet heavy industry also began in 1928. Generally, the targets were too ambitious; nonetheless Soviet industry did begin to catch up with the West. As in pre-revolutionary days, such rapid industrial growth caused much hardship. Living standards plummeted as the industrial workforce swiftly doubled to 6 million, and Soviet officials were quick to punish underproduction by imprisonment in labor camps.
The USSR and Europe
Although European governments feared that the USSR was bent on spreading revolution to their countries, the Soviets played relatively little part in European affairs in this period. The 1922 Treaty of Rapallo brought the USSR together with Germany, but with the emergence of Hitler, the Soviets began a bitter war of propaganda against the Nazis.
From 1934 onwards Stalin moved towards Britain and France. However, disillusioned by the policies of appeasement and worried at the prospect of Soviet isolation, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Hitler in 1939, agreeing to partition Poland between their two countries. This gave the Soviets a breathing space, but it was only to last until June 1941, when Hitler invaded the USSR.
THE GREAT PURGE
In 1934 a senior Communist official, Kirov, was murdered - probably on Stalin's orders. Stalin claimed the murder was part of a widespread plot against the Soviet leadership, and used it to initiate the `Great Purge'. For four years a whole series of Stalin's potential rivals were brought before show trials, convicted and shot, including 1108 delegates to the 17th Party Congress.
The Purge also claimed the lives of intellectuals, army officers and indeed anyone who might be considered a threat to Stalin. The officer corps of the Red Army was ripped apart. About 20 000 officers were killed or imprisoned, and Marshal Tukhachevski, perhaps the greatest of all Soviet generals, was shot. Altogether tens of millions of people were executed, exiled, or put in prison. The damage the USSR suffered as a result of the Purge can never be properly assessed, but the Red Army was certainly to pay dearly for this bloodletting when the Germans invaded the USSR in 1941.
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
* WORLD WAR I
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* WORLD WAR II
* THE COLD WAR
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The Postwar Settlement (page 1)
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The signing of the Treaty of Versailles, 28 June 1919, in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles. The choice of venue had symbolic significance, as it was here that the unified German Empire had been declared after the defeat of France in 1871. In the center can be seen (from left to right) President Wilson of the USA, Prime Minister Clemenceau of France, and Prime Minister Lloyd George of Britain. (Imperial War Museum, London)
The Postwar Settlement (1 of 2)
Two months after Germany was forced to ask the Allies for an armistice to end World War I , the Paris Peace Conference opened. Although 32 states (but neither Germany nor Russia) sent representatives, most of the major decisions were taken by the `Big Three' - the British and French prime ministers (David Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau) and the US president (Woodrow Wilson). What they decided was to lay the foundations for the future of the world. France had lost 1.4 million men in the war and Clemenceau was determined to weaken Germany so that it could never again threaten French security. Among his demands was a demilitarized `buffer zone' in the Rhineland. Lloyd George, despite having exploited anti-German hysteria to win the December 1918 election, attempted to moderate the more extreme of Clemenceau's demands. In January 1918 Wilson had announced his `Fourteen Points', which were to form the basis of a moderate peace based on national self-determination. However, during the Conference the idealistic Wilson had to compromise with the demands of the French and British. The terms of the resulting Treaty of Versailles with Germany were severe (see below), including a clause in which Germany accepted responsibility for the war.
Redrawing the map of Europe
The break-up of the German, Russian, Turkish and Austro-Hungarian empires gave the Big Three the opportunity to redraw the map of Europe and build up buffer states around Germany and Russia - the latter because of fears of its Communist revolution spreading to other countries.
Under the Treaty of Versailles (signed on 28 June 1919), the Polish state was created and awarded the `Danzig Corridor' - a belt of former German land that gave the Poles access to the sea and separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. Danzig (the modern Polish Gdansk) became a free city administered by the newly created League of Nations (see below). Germany also lost northern Schleswig to Denmark, and Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium. The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine (seized in 1870) were returned to France. The Saarland was to be governed by an international commission for 15 years, until a referendum to decide its future, and the coalmines of the area given to France. The Rhineland was occupied by Allied troops and a 50 km (31 mi) wide swathe of land east of the Rhine was demilitarized. Control of German colonies overseas passed to the Allies under the guise of mandates from the League of Nations. The size of the German army was limited to 100 000 men, conscription was forbidden, and Germany was banned from possessing tanks, military aircraft and large naval vessels. In addition, heavy reparations were imposed (see below).
The victorious powers also signed treaties with Austria-Hungary. By the Treaty of St Germain (10 September 1919) Austria lost Bohemia (including the Sudetenland) and Moravia to the newly created state of Czechoslovakia; Galicia went to Poland; and Trieste, Istria and the South Tyrol to Italy. By the Treaty of the Trianon (4 June 1921) Hungary, the other half of the old Dual Monarchy, was stripped of two thirds of its territory to help form Czechoslovakia, the new state of Yugoslavia and Poland. Under the terms of the Treaty of Neuilly (26 November 1919) Bulgaria ceded land to Greece. Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria - like Germany - were all forbidden to build up their troops beyond a certain level.
The Allies were forced to sign two treaties with Turkey. The first, the Treaty of Sevres in August 1920, gave substantial parts of the old Ottoman Empire as mandates to France (which received `Greater Syria') and Britain (which gained Palestine, Iraq and Transjordan). However, an attempt by Greece, Britain and Italy to occupy parts of the Turkish homeland provoked a nationalist revolt led by a distinguished Turkish general, Mustapha Kemal (Kemal Ataterk, 1881-1938). His military and diplomatic successes cleared much of what is now present-day Turkey of foreign troops, and in 1923 he signed the Treaty of Lausanne, which gave Turkey much improved terms.
The seeds of future conflict
The seeds of future conflict were sown by these treaties. The various peoples of Europe were too mixed up to be neatly separated into nation-states, and the territorial settlement caused resentment and strife. Versailles, for example, resulted in ethnic Germans being placed under Polish and Czech rule in the Polish Corridor and the Sudetenland respectively. Italy, which had suffered heavy losses, left the Peace Conference disgruntled at her treatment by the Big Three, having failed to gain all the territory it had been promised when it entered the war on the Allied side. Above all, Germany emerged from the postwar settlement weakened and embittered but still the strongest power in central Europe. With the USA withdrawing into isolationism, France faced the prospect of a resurgent Germany alone, except for the unenthusiastic support of Britain and the weak and vulnerable states of Eastern Europe. The grievances of both Italy and Germany were to help undermine the fragile democratic systems in those countries.
The Versailles settlement has often been criticized for being too harsh; it has also been argued - in retrospect - that it was too mild and that only occupation and partition could have prevented future German aggression. One of the most bitterly resented aspects of the Treaty of Versailles was the imposition of monetary reparations. Britain and France demanded the payment of reparations from Germany both to satisfy their desire for revenge and to pay off their enormous war debts to the USA: Britain owed $5 billion and France about $4 billion.
John Maynard Keynes, the British economist, warned that reparations would be damaging to the economies of the victorious powers as well as Germany, but he was ignored. In 1923, during a period of rampant inflation in Germany, the payment of reparations was unilaterally suspended. The French Army marched into the German industrial area of the Ruhr, which caused the German economy further damage. A promise that reparations would once again be paid induced the French to pull out in September 1923. Reparations were scrapped in 1932 without having been paid in full.
* WORLD WAR I
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* WORLD WAR II
Outline
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The Postwar Settlement (page 2)
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Germans in Berlin demonstrating against the Treaty of Versailles held back by the police. The imposition of monetary reparations in particular, which they believed caused their economic problems, was resented by the German people. Their grievances were later harnessed by Adolf Hitler.
The Postwar Settlement (2 of 2)
The League of nations
Some of the events of the 1920s made the international scene appear somewhat brighter. For example, the League of Nations had been created at the Peace Conference in 1920 in an attempt to outlaw war. It was intended that aggressor states would be punished by economic sanctions, or in the last resort by military action by states that were members of the League. Unfortunately for the idea, the US Senate refused in 1920 to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, and the USA did not join the League. Thus the League was weakened from the outset, and was to prove unable to stand up to international aggression in the 1930s.
However, the notion of `collective security' survived and by the Locarno Treatiesof 1925 Germany's western frontiers were guaranteed by Italy and Britain. At this time Germany joined the League. The Kellogg-Briand Pact (named after the US and French foreign ministers who proposed it in 1928) renounced war as a means of settling disputes, and was signed by 65 nations. However, like Locarno, it proved to be of little lasting value. Growing rivalry in the Pacific between Japan and the USA appeared to have been defused by the Washington Naval Conference of 1921-22. This established a ratio of tonnage of capital ships (i.e. battleships and heavy cruisers) of 5:5:3 between the fleets of the USA, Britain and Japan.
THE DEPRESSION
The Wall Street Crash was to terminate the era of collective security. On 24 October 1929, after a period of apparent prosperity, confidence in the New York Stock Exchange collapsed, leading to panic selling of shares. The Wall Street Crash threw first the USA and then the world economy into recession. As world trade suffered, unemployment rose steeply, leading to poverty, homelessness and misery for millions.
The Depression, as it became known, placed enormous strains on democratic political systems. In 1931 an attempt to deal with Britain's economic problems by cutting public spending led to the resignation of the Labour government and a constitutional crisis. British democracy survived, while in the USA President Franklin D. Roosevelt's liberal
New Deal
policies had some success in tackling the social problems of the Depression. In Germany, the Depression made possible Hitler's rise to power.
THE FOURTEEN POINTS
President Wilson of the USA proposed his
Fourteen Points
in 8 January 1918. They enunciated the USA's aims in World War I, and Wilson hoped they would provide the basis of a lasting peace. However, at the Paris Peace Conference, Wilson was forced by Britain and France to give way on many of them.
1. An open peace treaty, with no secret diplomacy.
2. Freedom of navigation in international waters.
3. The removal of international trade barriers.
4. Reduction in the armaments of all countries.
5. Impartial settlement of conflicting colonial claims, taking into account the interests of the colonial populations concerned.
6. The evacuation of foreign troops from Russian territory, and no further interference in Russia's own political self-determination.
7. The evacuation of German troops from Belgium, and a guarantee of Belgian Sovereignty.
8. The evacuation of German troops from France, and the restoration of Alsace and Lorraine.
9. The adjustment of Italian frontiers on the basis of nationality.
10. Self-determination for all nationalities within the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
11. Removal of occupying forces from Romania, Montenegro and Serbia, and access to the sea for Serbia.
12. Guarantee of sovereignty of the Turkish portion of the Ottoman Empire, and self-determination for other nationalities within the Empire, plus free passage for all nations through the Dardanelles (between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea).
13. An independent Poland with access to the sea. (Poland had been partitioned between Prussia, Austria and Russia in the 18th century.)
14. The formation of a
general association of nations
- which was to become the League of Nations.
* WORLD WAR I
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* WORLD WAR II
Outline
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The Growth of Totalitarianism (page 1)
ftsTitle
A Nazi gathering. One of the features of totalitarian states is the highly regimented mass rally of party members. Those held annually by the Nazis at Nuremberg involved huge open-air gatherings in a specially built stadium. The Nazi leaders used these occasions to rouse their followers into a frenzy of devotion, and to deliver important policy statements.
The Growth of Totalitarianism (1 of 2)
From an ancient Roman symbol of authority, the fasces, is derived the name of one of the most significant ideologies of the 20th century - Fascism. Fascism grew out of the unstable political conditions that followed World War I. Its mass appeal derived from its promises to replace weak democratic governments with strong leadership and to rectify the grievances of individuals and states arising out of the postwar settlement . In the 1920s Fascist dictators began to gain power in several countries. Once they did, tensions arose between themselves and the democratic states - tensions that would lead eventually to war. Fascism was not a coherent doctrine like Marxism, but all Fascists believed in a strong, nationalist, authoritarian state, ruled by a charismatic dictator backed by a single paramilitary party. Fascists were fanatically opposed to democracy, socialism, Marxism and liberalism, and were often racist and antisemitic. Both in opposition and in power, Fascists made effective use of propaganda and terror to win support and to dispose of political rivals.
Mussolini gains power
Italy appeared to be threatened by Communist revolution after World War I. One of the many extremist right-wing groups that was formed in response was the Fasci di Combattimento (usually shortened to `Fascists'), led by Benito Mussolini (1883-1945). By 1922, largely through Mussolini's brilliant oratory and shrewd political sense, the Fascists had gained enough support to attempt to seize power. In October, 25 000 Fascist `Blackshirts' marched on Rome and King Victor Emmanuel III was forced to ask Mussolini to form a government.
In 1926 Mussolini made himself dictator, awarding himself the title `Il Duce' (`the Leader'). His most notable achievement was the Lateran Treaty of 1929, which ended the hostility between the Catholic Church and the Italian State. Massive programs of public works were undertaken, but this did not prevent Italy from suffering badly in the Depression.
The rise of the Nazis
In Germany the weak Weimar Republic (set up in the aftermath of World War I, and named after the town where its parliament first met) came under attack in 1919 from Communist `Spartacist' revolutionaries, and in 1920 right-wing paramilitary units launched an abortive coup - the `Kapp Putsch'. In 1923 Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), leader of the small National Socialist German Workers' (or Nazi) Party, tried to overthrow the Bavarian government. The `Beer-Hall Putsch' was unsuccessful and Hitler, a former army corporal, was arrested, serving a short prison sentence. During his imprisonment he wroteMein Kampf (`My Struggle'). In it he set out his beliefs on race: that `Aryan' Germanic peoples were superior to Slavs, Negroes and, above all, Jews, and that the German `Master Race' must conquer territory in the east to achievelebensraum (`living space').
The Depression rang the death knell of the Weimar Republic. In 1930 a political crisis developed over plans to cut government spending on welfare services and President von Hindenburg (1847-1934) began to rule by decree. The Nazis were well placed to exploit the crisis. Hitler was a masterly orator and one of his principal lieutenants, Josef Goebbels (1897-1945), had a genius for propaganda. Hitler denounced democratic politicians for stabbing the undefeated German Army in the back at the end of World War I by signing the Treaty of Versailles, and blamed the Depression on Jewish financiers. Nazi tactics were ruthless but effective: the brown-shirted `Stormtroopers' of the SA (Sturmabteilung) intimidated and murdered opponents. The Nazis began to receive support from all classes who longed for firm government. In the 1932 election the Nazis won 230 seats, becoming the largest party in the Reichstag (the German parliament), and on 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor (prime minister). The move to totalitarianism was swift. The Nazis used the burning of the Reichstag on 27 February 1933 - which was probably the work of the Nazis themselves - as an excuse to arrest opposition politicians. The Nazis also forced through a law giving Hitler dictatorial powers.
Hitler in power
After von Hindenburg's death in August 1934 Hitler became `Fehrer' (`Leader') with the powers of chancellor and president. The Nazis outlawed all other political parties, banned trade unions, and tightened their grip on the state by the use of censorship and by establishing a hierarchy of Nazi officials down to the lowest levels. Hitler's will was enforced by the SS (Schutzstaffel, `protection squad') and Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei, `secret state police'), both under the authority of Heinrich Himmler (1900-1945). Ernst Roehm, the head of the SA and a potential rival to Hitler, was murdered along with 150 of his followers on the `Night of the Long Knives' (30 June 1934).
In accordance with Hitler's hatred of the Jews, the 1935 Nuremberg Laws stripped German Jews of their remaining rights; eventually 6 million Jews were murdered in concentration camps. By reintroducing conscription and rearming in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler not only reduced unemployment but also restored national pride - both of which made him genuinely popular in Germany in the 1930s.
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE RIGHT
* THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS
* THE POSTWAR SETTLEMENT
* WORLD WAR II
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
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The Growth of Totalitarianism (page 2)
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Mussolini meets Hitler at Florence railway station.
The Growth of Totalitarianism (2 of 2)
Totalitarianism in Japan
Other European states - notably Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland and Romania - were also ruled by right-wing dictators during the interwar years. However, the growth of totalitarianism was not con- fined to Europe. Japanese governments in the 1920s tended to be weak, and even before the Wall Street Crash the country suffered from serious economic problems. Faced with the power of big business on the one hand and the development of left-wing movements on the other, Fascist-style ideas, combined with a revival of emperor-worship, began to influence army officers. Many sections of Japanese society supported the idea of strong military government and military expansion at the expense of Japan's neighbors - particularly the European colonial powers.
The army began to demonstrate increasing independence from the government. In 1931, following a clash with Chinese troops at Mukden, the army occupied Chinese Manchuria on its own initiative. Four years later it attempted to seize power in Tokyo. Although the coup failed, the army came to have a dominating influence on the government, with General Hideki Tojo (1884-1948) becoming prime minister in 1941. Domestic policies began to resemble those of European Fascist states.
The failure of the League of Nations
The League of Nations proved unable to prevent war. When in 1933 a League commission denounced the Japanese attack on Manchuria the Japanese simply left the League and began a war of conquest in China proper in 1937. Similarly, in 1935-36 Mussolini invaded and conquered Abyssinia (Ethiopia). All the League of Nations did was to impose - for a brief period - ineffective economic sanctions on Italy. Three years later, in March 1939, Mussolini struck again, attacking and occupying Albania.
Meanwhile Hitler began to threaten the peace of Europe. In 1934 Germany left the League and in 1935 Hitler announced his rearmament program. The following year he marched into the demilitarized zone in the Rhineland. This was a gamble: German forces were still very weak and the French might have driven them back. However, Britain and France did nothing. Also in 1936 Mussolini and Hitler became allies in the Rome-Berlin Axis, and Japan joined Germany in the Anti-Comintern Pact, aimed against the USSR.
Appeasement and the road to war
British and French policy towards Hitler has been called `appeasement' - that is, they gave way to what they believed to be Hitler's reasonable demands in the hope that he would be content and not go to war. In March 1938 German troops marched into Austria and the Anschluss(union of the two countries) was proclaimed. Hitler next began to threaten Czechoslovakia, using the alleged ill-treatment of German-speaking peoples in Czech Sudetenland as a pretext. Britain and France at first supported the Czechs, but at the Munich conference in October 1938 the British and French prime ministers agreed to Hitler's demands, and the Sudetenland was handed over to Germany. The British prime minister returned to Britain announcing that he had achieved `peace in our time'.
This peace lasted for approximately 12 months. In March 1939 Hitler seized what was left of independent Czechoslovakia, in defiance of the Munich agreement. He then turned his attention to Poland, demanding the return of Danzig and access across the Polish Corridor to East Prussia. War once again seemed inevitable and the British and French began half-heartedly negotiating with the USSR. But on 24 August Germany signed a `non-aggression pact' with the USSR. Hitler, convinced that the British and French would do nothing, attacked Poland on 1 September 1939. World War II had begun.
THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
In Spain in 1936, alarmed at the left-wing policies of the Republican government and the breakdown in civil order, General Francisco Franco (1892-1975) mounted an armed revolt. A bloody three-year civil war began. Franco's Nationalists received military and economic support from Italy and Germany, and the Republican forces were aided by the Soviet Union as well as `International Brigades' of largely pro-Communist volunteers.
The fighting was bitter and many of the tactics of `total war' were tried out, especially by the Nationalists. In April 1937 German aircraft razed the Basque town of Guernica in a foretaste of the city bombing of 1940-45. In April 1939 the war ended in Nationalist victory and Franco became the leader of a neo-Fascist Falange government.
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE RIGHT
* THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS
* THE POSTWAR SETTLEMENT
* WORLD WAR II
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
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World War II (page 1)
ftsTitle
The battle on Iwo Jima (an 8-square-mile volcanic island) lasted 35 days at a cost of nearly 6,000 US and 19,000 Japanese lives.
World War II (1 of 5)
Between September 1939 and September 1945 the world experienced a `total war', fought by countries that devoted their full human and material resources to the complete destruction of their enemies. In the process the fighting spread to almost every continent and ocean, and all the ingenuity of man was used to produce new weapons of mass destruction. By the end of it all, over 50 million people had died. The conflict began in Europe when, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland in pursuance of its territorial demands. Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later but could do nothing to help the Poles. On 17 September, following the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, Soviet units advanced from the east to link up with Hitler's armies. Poland ceased to exist.
Europe and the Mediterranean
After a pause known as the `Phoney War', Hitler turned towards the west. In early April 1940 German forces invaded Denmark and Norway, then on 10 May turned their blitzkrieg (`lightning war') tactics on the Netherlands, Belgium and France, spearheading their attacks with dive bombers and fast-moving tank units. Anglo-French forces moved into Belgium, but found that the Germans had advanced across their rear. Trapped on the coast the British rescued over 300 000 men from Dunkirk, leaving the French to fight on alone. France surrendered on 22 June, and a pro-German French government was set up in the town of Vichy.
By then Britain was besieged. Since September 1939 the Germans had been conducting a naval campaign against British merchant shipping, and the German U-boats (submarines) were beginning to have an effect. In the aftermath of Dunkirk this threat was reinforced by air attacks on Britain. Initially the Germans tried to destroy the RAF as a preliminary to invasion, but were defeated in the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940. They then tried to undermine British resolve by bombing cities in the `Blitz' (September 1940-May 1941).
Nor was the fighting confined to Europe. On 10 June 1940 Italy declared war on Britain and France, taking the opportunity of their weakness to seize Somaliland (Somalia) and invade Egypt. In the event both attacks were defeated, with British counterattacks to take Italian-held Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and eastern Libya. This triggered a German response to prevent Italian humiliation. In North Africa General Erwin Rommel (1891-1944) pushed the British back to the Egyptian border, while in the Mediterranean the key island of Malta came under air attack. In the Balkans, where an Italian invasion of Greece (October 1940) had come close to disaster, German forces swiftly overran Yugoslavia, Greece and Crete (April-May 1941). British fortunes were at a low ebb, boosted only by a growing friendship with the USA. This resulted in the provision of war materials to the UK under `Lend-Lease'.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* THE POSTWAR SETTLEMENT
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE COLD WAR
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Battle on Iwo Jima USA
**++*
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World War II (page 2)
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US marines storming Tarawa Airfield during the assault on the Gilbert Islands in the Pacific in 1943. The attack was the first of Admiral Chester Nimitz's 'island hopping' campaigns, and although it lasted only three days, the USA suffered nearly a thousand casualties fighting against fanatical Japanese defenders.
World War II (2 of 5)
The war spreads
The war suddenly escalated on 22 June 1941, when Hitler's forces attacked the USSR. As German tanks thrust deep into western Russia, massive pockets of Soviet troops surrendered. But Hitler could not make up his mind about objectives, first of all shifting forces to the north, then to the south. It was not until October that a major drive on Moscow began. As German units approached the city the winter snows began, enabling the Russians to recover. In December they counterattacked, forcing the Germans into winter enclaves.
By then the war had spread to the Pacific. On 7 December 1941 Japanese aircraft struck Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian islands, crippling the US Pacific Fleet. In the next few weeks Japanese forces attacked the Philippines, Malaya, Hong Kong and the Dutch East Indies. By May 1942 all these colonies, together with Burma and Singapore, had been lost, and even Australia was under attack.
These escalations were to spell long-term disaster for the Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan), for a Grand Alliance (including Britain, the USA and the USSR) now emerged. Cooperation between the three main Allies was not always smooth, but a series of meetings, initially between British prime minister Churchill and President Roosevelt of the USA, then including the Soviet leader Stalin, gradually developed a concerted strategy for the defeat of the Axis, based on a demand for unconditional surrender.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* THE POSTWAR SETTLEMENT
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE COLD WAR
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World War II (page 3)
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World War II (3 of 5)
The tide turns in the west
The first priority was the defeat of Germany. The Americans favored an immediate cross-Channel invasion, but Britain was not enthusiastic. By early 1942 North Africa had still to be cleared, and Allied shipping in the Atlantic was still under heavy attack by German U-boats. Churchill therefore persuaded the Americans to concentrate on these two areas first, together with a combined bombing offensive against German cities.
By early 1943 new tactics and weapons had given victory to the Allies in the Atlantic. In North Africa, the tide was turned at Alamein in October 1942 by British forces under General (later Field Marshal) Bernard Montgomery (1887-1976). Simultaneously Anglo-US forces invaded French North Africa and, although the Axis forces fought stubbornly for Tunisia, victory was attained by May 1943.
The Americans called again for a cross-Channel assault, but the Mediterranean still took priority. In July 1943 Allied forces invaded Sicily then, in September, southern Italy. Mussolini was overthrown and the Italians surrendered, but German units rushed south to fill the breach. The Allied advance soon stalled in mountains to the south of Rome, centered on Monte Cassino. Despite an amphibious landing at Anzio (January 1944), Cassino was not taken until May. Rome was liberated on 4 June.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* THE POSTWAR SETTLEMENT
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE COLD WAR
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World War II Pacific battles3
**++*
p444-4
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World War II (page 4)
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World War II (4 of 5)
The defeat of Germany
The build-up of Allied forces in Britain was now complete. On 6 June 1944 (D-Day) they crossed the Channel under the overall command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) to seize beachheads on the coast of Normandy. Bitter fighting ensued, but by early September Paris had been liberated, an invasion of southern France had taken place and Anglo-US forces were closing in on Germany. An attempt to use airborne forces to `jump' the lower Rhine at Arnhem in the Netherlands failed in September, and an autumn stalemate developed.
The Soviets meanwhile, under Marshal Georgi Zhukov (1896-1976), had advanced from the east. Their victory was hard-won, beginning in early 1943 when a German push towards the Caucasus had been stalled in the shattered streets of Stalingrad (now Volgograd). This enabled the Soviets to begin pushing westwards and by July 1943 their forces had re-entered the Crimea and advanced as far as Kursk, where a major German counterattack was decisively defeated. In 1944 a series of coordinated attacks all along the Eastern Front pushed the Germans out of the Ukraine in the south, to the gates of Warsaw in the center (where an uprising by Polish resistance fighters was put down brutally by the Germans) and to the former Baltic provinces in the north. Leningrad, under German siege since 1941, was relieved in January 1944, having cost over one million Russian lives. Advances into the Balkans finally cleared the Germans from Soviet territory in late 1944.
The end came swiftly for Germany. Attacked from the air by massive fleets of Anglo-US bombers, its cities lay in ruins and, despite a desperate German counterattack through the Ardennes in December 1944, the Allies closed in. In the east the Russians drove from Warsaw to the gates of Berlin; in the west the Anglo-Americans crossed the Rhine and reached the River Elbe; in Italy the Germans were pushed over the Alps. Hitler committed suicide in late April 1945 and Berlin fell to the Soviets in early May. On 8 May Germany surrendered unconditionally.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* THE POSTWAR SETTLEMENT
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE COLD WAR
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World War II European battles
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World War II (page 5)
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A prisoner washing at the Belsen concentration camp. In 1940 the Nazis began the implementation of the 'Final Solution' - the extermination of those they considered sub-human - in such camps as Belsen, Buchenwald, Auschwitz, Treblinka and Dachau. An estimated 20 million people died, either in the gas chambers in the camps or from starvation and disease. Among the victims were some 6 million Jews together with Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals and political prisoners.
World War II (5 of 5)
The defeat of Japan
This left the Japanese. Their initial wave of success had been halted at the Battleof Midway (June 1942) as well as in New Guinea and Guadalcanal (Solomon Islands). The Americans immediately went onto the offensive, conducting a two-pronged advance - under General Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964) in the southwest and under Admiral Chester Nimitz (1885-1966) in the central Pacific. Simultaneously British forces prepared to counterattack in Burma in conjunction with Chinese units. The Solomons/New Guinea campaign achieved success by late 1943, enabling MacArthur to prepare for the liberation of the Philippines; at the same time forces under Nimitz began an `island-hopping' campaign, aiming for Taiwan.
By early 1944 it had been decided that both prongs should converge on the Philippines. As Nimitz closed in, taking the Marshall and Mariana Islands by June, he defeated a major Japanese naval force at the Battle of the Philippine Sea; as MacArthur invaded Luzon in October, he did the same at the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Both victories enabled the Americans to step up the pressure, fighting to liberate the myriad of islands in the Philippines while initiating a bombing campaign on Japan from the Marianas. In Burma a Japanese attack towards Imphal was defeated and the British went on to the offensive, liberating Rangoon by May 1945.
By then Iwo Jima had been captured and Okinawa invaded, although as US troops got closer to Japan the level of resistance grew more fanatical. Presented with the means to knock Japan out of the war and thereby save thousands of US soldiers, the new US president, Harry Truman, authorized the use of the newly developed atomic bomb on Hiroshima (6 August) and Nagasaki (9 August). The latter coincided with a Soviet invasion of Manchuria and this finally broke Japanese resolve. The Pacific war ended on 15 August, although the surrender was not formally signed until 2 September. It was the end of six years of war.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* THE POSTWAR SETTLEMENT
* THE GROWTH OF TOTALITARIANISM
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE COLD WAR
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China in the 20th Century (page 1)
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Mao Zedong, the former teacher and son of a prosperous farmer. By bringing Communist rule to China, he transformed the lives of a quarter of the world's inhabitants. During the Cultural Revolution the 'little red book' of Mao's maxims became the inspiration for millions of Chinese.
China in the 20th Century (1 of 3)
At the beginning of the 20th century China was in turmoil.
Despite a remarkable continuity of civilization dating back to at least 2000 BC, the authority of the emperor had been weakened in the 19th century by outside powers greedy for trade, and by huge rebellions which had left large areas of the country beyond the control of central government. In 1911 a revolution, led by the Guomindang (Kuomintang or Nationalists) under Sun Zhong Shan (Sun Yat-sen; 1866-1925), overthrew the last of the Manchu emperors. Strong in the south (where Sun established a republic in 1916), the Nationalists faced problems in the north, which was ruled by independent warlords resentful of central interference. By the time of Sun's death in 1925 it was obvious that if the republic was to be extended to the whole of China, force would have to be used: indeed, Sun's successor, Jiang Jie Shi (Chiang Kai-shek; 1887-1975), gained his new position primarily because he commanded the Nationalist armies. Some inroads were made into the north, only to be undermined by the emergence of another, potentially powerful political force - the Communists.
Mao Zedong and the Communist revolution
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was formed in Shanghai in 1921, taking as its model the Bolshevik revolution in Russia four years earlier. But the Russian Communists had based their revolution on the discontented urban working class, and this the Chinese - an overwhelmingly peasant people - lacked. By 1928, after a series of disastrous urban uprisings, easily and brutally suppressed by Jiang, the CCP seemed doomed to extinction.
While this was going on, however, a relatively unknown member of the CCP, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung; 1893-1976), had been experimenting with new ideas. Recognizing that any successful revolution needed popular support and that in the China of the time such support could only come from the peasants, he concentrated on the rural areas, setting up `safe bases' among the people, which would act as a strong foundation for future action against the Nationalist government. Operating initially in his own home province of Hunan, in south-central China, then in the remote and inaccessible mountains of neighboring Jiangxi, Mao proved so successful that by the early 1930s he was posing a direct challenge to Jiang's authority.
Jiang responded with military action, gradually reducing the Jiangxi base until, in October 1934, Mao was forced to withdraw. During the next 12 months he led his followers on a 9000 km (5600 mi) trek known as the `Long March', moving from Jiangxi to the even more remote northwestern province of Shaanxi. Jiang, convinced that he could do no more damage, let him go.
The Sino-Japanese War
But by this time Jiang was facing a much more immediate threat - that of Japanese expansion. This had begun in 1931 with the Japanese seizure of Manchuria (one of the few centers of Chinese industry), and this was followed six years later by an all-out attack that led to the Japanese occupation of Beijing as well as of substantial parts of the Chinese coast.
Despite an alliance between Jiang and Mao, the Nationalists (who bore the brunt of the fighting) could do little to counter Japanese aggression. Only after the extension of the war to the Pacific and Southeast Asia in 1941-42 could Jiang be guaranteed the outside support he needed, especially from the USA, but even then the record of the Nationalists was poor. They were still facing the Japanese occupation of large parts of China when Japan surrendered to the Allies in August 1945.
Part of the pressure exerted on Japan in the final days of the war was a Soviet invasion of Manchuria. In its aftermath the Soviets tried to ensure that Mao's Communists took over the area, hoping to accelerate the revolution. During the Sino-Japanese War Mao had extended his influence and gathered strength, waiting for an opportunity to attack the weakened Nationalists. In 1946 he marched into Manchuria.
One man stops a line of tanks. The line of tanks were rolling to Beijing's Tienanmen Square, site of a student demonstration in 1989. The man escapes after being carried away by his friends. When the tanks reached the Square, violence erupted, the student demonstrators were forced out and their demonstration ended.
China in the 20th Century (2 of 3)
The civil war and Communist victory
This began a civil war in China that was to last for three years. At first the Nationalists held on to Manchuria, but gradually lost their grip in the face of guerrilla attacks. By 1948 Manchuria was in Communist hands and, when this was followed by attacks on Beijing, Jiang's forces began to collapse. On 1 October 1949 Mao proclaimed a People's Republic in Beijing. Jiang fled to the offshore island of Taiwan, where a Nationalist government was set up. The Communists periodically exerted military and political pressure against the Nationalists, most notably in 1958 when Mao's forces tried to seize the Nationalist-controlled islands of Quemoy and Matsu. However, the Nationalist government in Taiwan still exists today.
Meanwhile, in 1949 Mao's first priority was to ensure Communist control over the whole of mainland China, sending the newly created People's Liberation Army (PLA) to root out `class enemies' and the remnants of the Nationalist armies. This led in 1950 to the first of a series of moves beyond the borders of China, when PLA units entered Tibet, an independent state since 1916. Repressive Communist rule alienated the native Tibetans, loyal to their religious leader, the Dalai Lama, and in 1959 they rose in revolt, only to be ruthlessly suppressed. Tibet has remained under Chinese control ever since.
Border wars
Expansion such as this highlights one of the chief priorities of the Chinese Communists - to secure the borders of China against outside interference. From late October 1950 PLA `volunteers' saw action in Korea, triggered by an advance by United Nations forces into Communist North Korea after the North Koreans had been pushed back from their invasion of the South. As the UN advance seemed to be approaching the Yalu River on the border with China, Mao felt justified in committing his troops, initiating a costly but (in Chinese eyes) ultimately successful campaign that lasted almost three years. At the end of the Korean War in 1953 all of the North had been restored to Communist control and the threat to China's border removed.
Similar intervention in the Himalayan border region against India in 1962 prevented what was seen as a threat from that direction, while in 1979 an incursion into northern Vietnam, albeit less successful militarily, continued the trend.
The Sino-Soviet split
The incursion into Vietnam had its origins in a Chinese fear of Soviet encirclement, for by then Vietnam was supported by the USSR. Such a fear had seemed justified ever since relations between China and the USSR deteriorated in the late 1950s, triggered by ideological clashes over the true nature of Communism and fueled by border clashes in Manchuria. One of the results was an acceleration of Chinese research into atomic weapons - they test-exploded their first device in 1964 - but of far more significance was the effects of the split on Chinese domestic and foreign policy. In foreign-policy terms, Mao mended fences with the USA in the early 1970s, playing the West against the East in a new twist to the Cold War, while at home he tried to radicalize the revolution to ensure its ideological strength.
* POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE LEFT
* CHINA TO THE COLONIAL AGE
* WORLD WAR II
* THE COLD WAR
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Tienanmen Square, China
**++*
p446-3
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China in the 20th Century (page 3)
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Zi Xi or Tz'u-hsi, the imperial concubine who became empress on the birth of her son in 1856. She retained effective power during her son's reign, and then during the reign of her nephew - whom she imprisoned and eventually had murdered shortly before her own death in 1908. Her reactionary policies inspired widespread discontent, culminating in the Nationalist revolution of 1911.
China in the 20th Century (3 of 3)
The Cultural Revolution and its aftermath
The process of radicalization had begun in the 1950s, when the PLA (always primarily a political rather than a military instrument) had been sent into the countryside to spearhead the `Great Leap Forward', an ambitious program of land collectivization and education. It had largely failed, suggesting to Mao that the PLA had lost its revolutionary zeal.
After appropriate reforms in the PLA, Mao tried again in the mid-1960s, determined to spread more radical revolutionary ideas to the people in the so-called Cultural Revolution. He stirred up a hornets' nest, with militant students forming groups of `Red Guards' to attack the existing hierarchy, which they regarded as bourgeois, over-Westernized and technocratic. Thousands died, and thousands more bureaucrats and intellectuals were sent to work in the fields. Mao was lucky to survive, having to turn to the PLA for support against the Red Guards when they went out of control. The power struggle that ensued between the militants and the now influential PLA was still being played out when Mao died in 1976.
After Mao's death China - under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping (1904- ) - followed a more careful course both at home and abroad. Border disputes were settled more peaceably, and relations with the USSR were cautiously re-established in 1989. Foreign affairs generally were characterized by more open friendship with previously hated enemies. The agreement to negotiate the future of Hong Kong, which is to cease to be a British colony and revert to Chinese control in 1997, is a case in point.
The reason for this opening up to foreign countries is that the Party leadership had recognized the need for industrialization and modernization if China was to compete in the world, and this would be impossible if foreign crises occurred. Western technology was needed, and for this to be available and effective in China, less extreme policies had to be introduced. Economic liberalization and the opening up to the Western cultural influences has led to internal pressures for political change, culminating in the massive pro-democracy demonstrations by students and workers in early 1989. These were brutally repressed by an aging leadership apparently unwilling to loosen its hold on political power. In the face of an international outcry, China seemed to be turning inwards again.
China is currently at a crossroads: if it succeeds in modernizing its industry it has great potential; if it reverts to repression and international distrust, the record of violence and war so characteristic of its history in the 20th century could continue.
Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi helped India win independence through his nonviolent campaign of civil disobedience, although he was imprisoned by the British four times. He also went on hunger strikes to focus attention on and gather sympathy for, his cause. His nonviolent campaign greatly influenced the later American civil rights movement led by Martin Luther King.
Decolonization (1 of 2)
The process of decolonization, or withdrawal from empire, is by no means a novelty peculiar to the second half of the 20th century. In classical times, for instance, the Persians, Greeks and Romans in turn abandoned their once-expansive empires; in the early 19th century Spain and Portugal proved unable to maintain their colonies in Latin America in the face of an outburst of nationalist feeling. More recently Germany lost its overseas holdings in Africa and the Pacific as a result of defeat in World War I, while both Italy and Japan lost theirs as a result of defeat in World War II. The theme of decolonization is therefore a well-established one and, like the process of setting up and maintaining an empire - imperialism - a recurrent one in world history.
For all that, however, the decolonization process that has taken place since 1945 can be distinguished from previous imperial retreats by the sheer magnitude of what has happened. Whereas the Roman Empire of antiquity was restricted to the Mediterranean basin, Western Europe and parts of the Middle East, the retreat from empire by Western European powers during the modern period has affected virtually the entire world.
It is instructive to contrast the political map of the world in 1945 with its equivalent 30 years later. In 1945 there were some 70 independent sovereign states in existence, and much of the globe - especially vast tracts of Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and the Middle East - were controlled by European colonial powers, either as colonies or as protectorates or 'mandates' from the now defunct League of Nations. Thirty years later there were more than 170 independent states on the map, the increase being accounted for almost entirely by decolonization, and there were hardly any non-self-governing areas left. The age of European colonialism was over, the nationalist revolution having wrought a massive change in the international political system.
Pressures for change
That such a transformation came about has been explained by some historians in terms of a 'push-pull' concept - in other words, that the colonial powers abandoned their empires both because of the 'push' provided by the rise and spread of nationalism within their colonies, and because of the 'pull' provided by liberal opinion in the home countries. The two processes coincided with dramatic effect during the second and third quarters of the 20th century to produce the wholesale withdrawal from empire.
The 'push' - rising demand for self-government and independence - may be explained by a number of factors. One of these, the basis for the growth of nationalist sentiment within colonial territories, was the tendency of the colonial powers to provide Western-style education to their colonial subjects, albeit a minority of those subjects only and usually no more than a small elite. Education was provided for reasons of self-interest as well as altruism - an educated elite was a valuable asset in terms of local administration and development. But the consequences were the same: the emergence of a group of people who understood Western ways and who were imbued with notions such as freedom, self-determination and equality, and determined to enjoy such advantages themselves.
Another equally significant factor was the development in many colonies of an economic infrastructure (roads, railways, schools, etc.) and even some commerce and industry. This helped to stimulate 'detribalization' (the breaking down of barriers between different groups of people within a colonial area) and, allied to the spread of education, this produced groups of colonial subjects susceptible to the nationalist message.
Finally, the clash of cultures brought about by imperialism created upheaval. The imperialists were alien in terms of race and religion in most cases, and local people - often for the first time - became aware of their own unique characteristics. In the Middle East, for example, the importance of the Islamic religion and the steady growth of an awareness of the Arab race as a distinct social and cultural grouping undoubtedly fueled the rise of Arab nationalism - a force of some potential as early as the 1920s and 1930s.
The legislative assembly of Ghana following independence in 1957. Many of the newly decolonized nations adopted some of the political structures and traditions of the imperial nations to which they had been attached. Ghana's parliament has the mace and the opposing sides facing each other in parliament, both of which are found in the British parliament.
Decolonization (2 of 2)
The myth of White invincibility
If the effect of these factors could be seen from such an early stage, World War II gave a tremendous boost to the growth of nationalist feeling - especially in areas occupied by Axis forces or cut off from the imperial power.
In Southeast Asia, for example, French and British territories were exposed to revolutionary ideas following the Japanese conquests of 1941-42. Having shattered the myth of White invincibility, the Japanese encouraged local anti-colonial movements. After the war, these movements were superseded or enlarged by anti-Japanese nationalists - many of them Communists. Winning considerable popular backing, these elements were able to persuade or coerce the returning imperialists into granting independence - in Burma (now Myanmar) with minimal violence but in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) and French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) only after prolonged and bloody conflict in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
In Africa, too, nationalist sentiment developed rapidly as a result of World War II. Its rise was fueled by a variety of factors: the humiliation of France and Britain in 1940 and of Italy by 1943; economic and commercial development during the war; and, of course, by inspiration offered by Asian countries such as India and Pakistan, which gained their independence (albeit to the accompaniment of widespread sectarian violence) in 1947. By then, the Philippines had gained independence from the USA (in 1946), Britain had given notice of her intention to withdraw from the mandate of Palestine (in 1947), and Indonesia formally became independent of the Dutch in 1949.
World War II, or more accurately the effects of that war, also encouraged the growth of anti-imperialist feeling in the mother countries themselves. Many of these countries, notably Britain, France, Belgium and the Netherlands, had been devastated or virtually bankrupted by the war and were finding it difficult to provide the necessary resources to rebuild their shattered economies, provide greater living standards at home and, at the same time, continue to bear the 'White man's burden' of empire. Imperial glory began to feel like imperial strain.
Moreover, the colonial powers began to find themselves overstretched not only economically and militarily but also, in a sense, morally. West European leaders and public opinion in general became responsive to the idea that colonial peoples should be allowed, indeed encouraged, to achieve the same rights of self-determination that Europeans had claimed for themselves long before. In short, the colonial powers began to lose the will, as opposed to just the power, to hang on to their empires indefinitely. The 'push' and the 'pull' thus came together and the imperial powers withdrew from empire in the third quarter of the 20th century almost as systematically as they had rushed into it in the latter half of the 19th. The days of empire, for better or worse, were over.
The end of empire
Setting the pace of decolonization were the British, who had established the largest of the overseas empires. Britain had begun the process long before World War II, granting independence to the countries of White settlement - Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa - and this was followed in 1947 by the concession of independence to the largest non-White territory, India (split along religious lines into Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan).
Then, under successive governments, colonies in Asia, Africa, the West Indies and Oceania followed suit, the process being greatly accelerated by the Suez Crisis of 1956, when Britain, having invaded Egypt (in conjunction with the French and Israelis) in an effort to reverse President Nasser's decision to nationalize the Anglo-French Suez Canal Company, was forced to withdraw under intense diplomatic and economic pressure from the USA. The implication was that, even if Britain wished to maintain an empire, it could no longer do so in a superpower-dominated world.
Decolonization gathered pace in the 1960s, presaged by Prime Minister Harold Macmillan's recognition of a 'wind of change' blowing through the colonies. Empire was replaced by the concept of a multi-racial Commonwealth, formed for the most part from states that had gained independence without recourse to violence, although the British did have to fight in places such as Malaya (1948-60), Kenya (1952-60), Cyprus (1955-59), Borneo (1963-66) and Aden (1964-67) to ensure, or try to ensure, the emergence of friendly governments.
The French also withdrew from empire, though only after two protracted and bitter conflicts against nationalists in Indochina (1946-54) and Algeria (1954-62) had persuaded them to abandon the concept of an indivisible French Union. The Portuguese, too, tried to preserve an indivisible empire, but gave up in 1974-75 after prolonged insurgencies in their three African territories of Angola (1961-74), Mozambique (1964-74) and Guinea-Bissau (1963-74).
In contrast, the Dutch accepted more quickly that they could not reassert their authority in the East Indies (Indonesia), while the Belgians granted independence to their main overseas holding, the Congo (Zaire) in 1960, although this was followed by a bitter civil war. Even Spain decided to abandon her African colonies, Guinea and the Spanish Sahara, in 1968 and 1976 respectively.
By the late 1970s the world had changed dramatically, producing new political, territorial and economic rivalries as well as new opportunities for alliances and trade. One significant political development was the establishment in 1961 of the non-aligned movement (mostly consisting of African and Asian states), which encouraged foreign policies independent of Eastern and Western superpower blocs. However, despite the technical independence of Third World states, many of them continue to be influenced strongly - politically and economically - by the USA or a former colonial power - a situation sometimes described as neo-imperialism or economic imperialism. Some Middle Eastern countries, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia, have also gained considerable influence over a number of Muslim Asian and African Third World countries since the advent of Islamic fundamentalism.
* THE THIRD WORLD AND THE DEVELOPED WORLD
* THE PEAK OF EMPIRE
* WORLD WAR II
* THE MIDDLE EAST
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The Cold War (page 1)
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The Tet Offensive (1968) was the beginning of the end for the US forces in Vietnam.
$The Cold War (1 of 2)
After the Allied victory in World War II, the USA and USSR emerged as the world's first superpowers. Deep ideological differences - between Western capitalism and Eastern Communism - ensured that they were rivals for economic and political influence, not just in Europe but worldwide. The 'Cold War', a term derived from the fact that the superpowers and their respective allies, particularly in NATO and the Warsaw Pact, were never in direct military conflict, began to develop in the late 1940s. It continued with varying degrees of hostility for four decades, fueled by suspicion, distrust and fears of nuclear confrontation.
In February 1945 the 'Big Three' Allied leaders - Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill - met at Yalta in the Crimea to decide the fate of postwar Europe. It was implicitly agreed that the USSR should maintain its influence in the areas of Eastern Europe occupied by the victorious Red Army. Germany, once defeated, was to be divided into four zones of military occupation, with the UK, USA and France in the west and the USSR in the east. Berlin, lying within the Soviet sector (and yet to be captured) was to be split into sectors along the same lines.
By 1949 Soviet-dominated Communist governments ruled in East Germany, Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Albania. Yugoslavia was also Communist. All opposition was suppressed and many personal freedoms curtailed. Europe was effectively divided down the middle, from the Baltic to the Adriatic; the so-called Iron Curtain had fallen. Until 1989, only Yugoslavia, Albania and (to a lesser extent) Romania had managed to break away from the Moscow line. When other Eastern European countries tried to implement more independent policies, the USSR quickly reasserted its domination. The reforming governments of Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968) were overthrown by military invasion. By then, Europe was divided into two armed camps, each headed by a nuclear-capable superpower. This military division was illustrated in the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in the West in April 1949, and the Warsaw Pact in the East in May 1955.
What the USSR had set up in Eastern Europe was a buffer between itself and the West. The fact that in World War II the USSR lost an estimated 27 million dead (most of them civilians) contributed to a siege mentality and, in particular, a determination to keep Germany - the aggressor in both 1914 and 1941 - divided. This fear of invasion or attack was replenished by periods of virulent anti-Communism in the West, although it should not be forgotten that all Soviet leaders up to 1985 openly espoused a doctrine of world revolution, in which the Soviet style of Communism would be extended to other states. Western fears of Soviet expansionism were not entirely groundless.
Early confrontations
Once fascism had been defeated in May 1945, the wartime friendship and cooperation between the Allies quickly crumbled, and the pre-war ideological hostility re-emerged. In 1947 President Harry Truman declared the intention of the USA to resist Communist expansion. This policy, known as the Truman Doctrine, was pursued by subsequent US governments throughout the Cold War and did much to fuel Soviet suspicions. US military and economic aid was sent to Greece and Turkey to bolster pro-Western governments against Communist insurrection. In addition, Western European reliance on the USA was ensured by the Marshall Plan of 1947, which pumped $13 billion of aid into war-ravaged countries.
When the Western Allies proposed currency reform throughout occupied Germany in 1948, the USSR vetoed the idea. The Western Allies unilaterally instituted the reforms in their own occupation zones. In retaliation, Soviet forces blocked off all land links to West Berlin (June 1948). However, the USA and UK organized an enormous airlift of supplies and the blockade was finally lifted in May 1949. By then, and in response to such perceived Soviet aggression, NATO had been formed, bringing the USA, Canada and ten (eventually 14) Western European countries together in mutual defense.
Anti-communist feeling in the West was further intensified by the explosion of the first Soviet atom bomb (July 1949), the Communist victory in China (October 1949), and the outbreak of the Korean War (June 1950). In the USA the 'Red Scare' came to a head with Senator Joseph McCarthy's witch-hunt of supposed Communists (1950-54). Anyone suspected of left-wing political views was hauled before a 'Committee on Un-American Activities' and publicly pilloried, regardless of the strength of evidence against them. Many Hollywood actors and scriptwriters, as well as authors and artists, found their careers destroyed merely by association with McCarthy's investigations. It was indicative of the paranoia that prevailed in a world so sharply divided and under the growing threat of nuclear devastation.
The Korean War
Korea, which had been a Japanese territory, was split into two occupation zones in 1945, with the Soviets to the north of the 38th parallel of latitude and the Americans to the south. An eventual reunification was planned, but in each zone the occupying forces set up governments that reflected their own ideologies. The occupation officially ended in 1948, but in June 1950 the North Koreans mounted a massive invasion of the South. The UN Security Council, which was being boycotted by the USSR because of the West's refusal to allow Communist China a permanent seat in place of the now defeated Nationalists, sent armed forces to protect South Korea. UN forces, under the American General Douglas MacArthur, rapidly pushed the North Koreans back over the 38th parallel, and continued to advance northwards regardless of Chinese warnings. China intervened and UN forces retreated back into South Korea. Fighting went on for another two years along the border. The new US president, Dwight D. Eisenhower, threatened to use nuclear weapons to break the deadlock, which precipitated an armistice in July 1953 and restored the status quo.
Latin America and the Caribbean
Since the formulation of the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, the USA has regarded the Americas as its particular sphere of influence. With the onset of the Cold War this policy was adapted to resist Communist penetration of the region. Sometimes this led to covert American involvement in the overthrow of democratically elected governments that the USA considered dangerously left-wing, as in Chile in 1973. It also led the USA to support authoritarian governments of the right.
A long-standing irritation to the USA was Cuba, where in 1959 Fidel Castro's left-wing government came to power. Castro's nationalization of American-owned property led the US government to back an unsuccessful invasion by Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs (April 1961). Castro retaliated by adopting full-blooded Communism, and allowed the USSR to build missile bases on the island in 1962. The US president, J. F. Kennedy, saw this as a direct threat and told the Soviets to cease construction and remove their missiles or face the possibility of conflict, with the implied threat of escalation to nuclear attack. The brinkmanship succeeded and the Soviets withdrew. Cuba attempted to export its revolution to various Third World countries. Notably active in this effort was Ernesto ('Che') Guevara, killed in Bolivia in 1967. In the 1980s Cuba supported the left-wing Sandinista government in Nicaragua, while the USA supplied extensive aid to the right-wing 'Contra' rebels.
Towards detente
Following the Cuban Missile Crisis both the USA and USSR realized how close they had come to mutual annihilation. Both sides sought thereafter to defuse tensions between them and to try to achieve a measure of 'peaceful co-existence'.
Although the most dangerous phase of the Cold War was over, both sides were to become embroiled in local conflicts, carefully avoiding direct confrontation with the other. The worst of these conflicts was undoubtedly in Vietnam. The beginning of the Vietnam peace talks in 1968 coincided with a broader effort at detente - the term applied to a reduction of tensions between states. The USA, China and the USSR all began to adopt a more realistic, less ideologically motivated attitude to world affairs.
One of the first signs of this process was the establishment of relations between the USA and Communist China, which by the early 1970s had established itself as a third superpower. China had broken with the USSR in the 1950s, since when relations between the two had steadily deteriorated. With US President Richard Nixon on visiting terms with Mao Zedong, the USSR saw the necessity of improving relations with the Americans. There was also the realization by both the USA and USSR that it would be too risky to intervene militarily in the Arab-Israeli Wars of 1967 and 1973. The results of detente included the ABM and SALT agreements of 1972 and 1974, by which the USA and USSR agreed to limitations in the nuclear arms race. There was also the Helsinki Conference of 1973-75, which was designed to reduce tension and increase cooperation within Europe.
hin Europe.
hin Europe.
hin Europe.
within Europe.
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* THE THIRD WORLD AND THE DEVELOPED WORLD
* THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS
* WORLD WAR II
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE COLD WAR AND BEYOND
* THE MIDDLE EAST
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Tet Offensive (1968) Vietnam
**++*
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The Cold War (page 2)
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The Cold War (2 of 2)
The New Cold War
A major setback to detente occurred in December 1979, when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan. The West immediately condemned the invasion and sent military aid to the anti-Soviet Afghan guerrillas in the subsequent civil war. For several years, East-West relations were extremely frosty, with both sides accelerating the arms race. President Ronald Reagan was particularly vehement about the 'evil empire' of the USSR and one of his responses, the Strategic Defense Initiative (DS) or 'Star Wars', was designed specifically to put pressure on Moscow to respond in kind, in the full knowledge that the Soviets could never afford the sophisticated weaponry involved.
By the mid-1980s, with the economic drain of Afghanistan, the arms race and support to a variety of left-wing revolutions in Central America and Africa, the USSR was close to collapse. Money was desperately needed to reform and boost the domestic economy, and the simplest way to find it was to cut down on the enormous cost of defense. As this would entail a withdrawal of forces from abroad, a reduction in the support offered to foreign revolutionaries and a more sensible arms balance, a return to detente seemed logical. The Soviet Union needed a leader to face these problems and put forward a solution. In 1985 that person emerged in the shape of Mikhail Gorbachov.
WARS IN VIETNAM
In July 1954 the French agreed to withdraw from their empire in Indochina after nine years of conflict with Ho Chi Minh's Communist Viet Minh culminated in French defeat at Dien Bien Phu. The Geneva Accords gave independence to Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam, although Vietnam was split along the 17th parallel of latitude. A Communist government took power in the North, with a pro-Western government in the South.
The North was intent on reunification under Communist rule. Communist guerrillas in the South, known as Viet Cong (VC), began to mount attacks in rural areas with support from the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). The USA, which saw South Vietnam as a bulwark against the spread of Communism in Asia, committed advisers to train the South Vietnamese Army. In August 1964, after an alleged North Vietnamese attack on US warships in the Gulf of Tonkin, the US Congress approved an expanded US military commitment of their forces, and they were drawn deeper and deeper into the struggle. Coordinated attacks throughout the South by the NVA and VC in January 1968 (the Tet Offensive), although eventually defeated, created a deep sense of shock in the USA. Richard Nixon, who replaced Lyndon Johnson as president in 1969, sought to hand responsibility for the conduct of the war to the South Vietnamese so that US troops could be withdrawn. However, US incursions into neighboring Cambodia and Laos, culminating in a successful pro-American coup against Prince Sihanouk in Cambodia, spread the war. It also left both countries vulnerable to their own indigenous Communist groups, the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and Pathet Lao in Laos.
A North Vietnamese invasion of the South in 1972 was halted to a large extent by US air power. After renewed US air attacks on the North, the North Vietnamese agreed to a cease-fire that left their forces in place in parts of South Vietnam. The Americans completed their withdrawal in early 1973; they had lost over 47000 servicemen in the conflict. However, the USA proved unable to maintain support for the South. The South Vietnamese Army collapsed in the face of an NVA invasion in early 1975, and by late April Saigon was in Communist hands. Cambodia and Laos also fell to the Communists in what was a massive defeat for US policy.
S policy.
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* THE THIRD WORLD AND THE DEVELOPED WORLD
* THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS
* WORLD WAR II
* CHINA IN THE 20TH CENTURY
* THE COLD WAR AND BEYOND
* THE MIDDLE EAST
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Cold War events
**++*
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The Cold War and Beyond (page 1)
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A statue of Lenin is dismantled in the Lithuanian capital of Vilnius following independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Although anti-Communist feeling was strong at the time of independence, painful economic reform and the collapse of the economy produced disenchantment with aspects of capitalism amongst the population, and in 1993 the former Communists were voted into government.
The Cold War and Beyond (1 of 3)
In March 1985 Mikhail Gorbachov succeeded Valentine Chernenko as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). He inherited a vast country comprising 15 republics, the economy of which was close to collapse. Inefficiency, corruption and an emphasis on heavy industry led to shortages of even the most basic commodities, while the devotion of some 20% of the USSR's gross domestic product to defense reflected both the 'New Cold War' and the long-term commitment to Afghanistan. The Soviet people were desperate for reform, although few could foresee its effects.
Gorbachov approached the problems of his country by introducing two new policies: glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). His aims were to identify those areas that needed reform and to encourage popular debate about how best to deal with them. At first, such policies were welcomed, but as the shortcomings of the system were revealed, popular debate soon became discontent, particularly as it was apparent that the problems were so deep-rooted that only radical reforms, which the Communist Party would never sanction, could solve them. Openness often revealed corruption and economic inefficiency and the lack of immediate reform led to cynicism and unrest.
Superpower relations
The initial optimism, however, did have an effect on relations between the Soviet Union and the West. As early as November 1985, Gorbachov met US President Ronald Reagan at Geneva for the first superpower summit since 1979. Reagan refused to give much away - he confirmed that the Americans would continue to support anti-Communist guerrillas worldwide - but it was apparent that a new atmosphere of cooperation was emerging. A second summit at Reykjavik in Iceland in 1986, at which Gorbachov offered dramatic cuts to strategic and intermediate-range nuclear weapons, fell foul of US distrust, although the proposals were not ignored. In December 1987, Reagan and Gorbachov signed the INF (Intermediate Nuclear Force) Treaty in Washington, implying a new warmth of feeling between the superpowers. To many observers, the Cold War was beginning to thaw.
This was reinforced by changes in Soviet foreign policy. In 1988, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan after nine years of bitter (and indecisive) fighting, while Gorbachov's preoccupation with domestic reform left many other Communist countries suddenly bereft of support. The North Vietnamese began to pull forces out of Kampuchea (Cambodia), and the Cubans announced that they would take their troops out of Angola. In response, the Americans agreed to stop their support of the Nicaraguan Contra rebels.
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS
* THE COLD WAR
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The Cold War and Beyond (page 2)
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Germans celebrate the reunification of their country at the Brandenburg Gate, Berlin, in October 1990.
The Cold War and Beyond (2 of 3)
The Eastern bloc
By the late 1980s the impact of Gorbachov's reforms had begun to be felt in the Communist countries of Eastern Europe. In 1987 Gorbachov's press secretary, Gennady Gerasimov, openly stated that the 'Brezhnev Doctrine' of Soviet intervention to prevent reform in countries of the Warsaw Pact had ended. It was replaced by a policy that allowed individual countries much greater autonomy - dubbed the 'Sinatra Doctrine' after the singer's popular song 'I did it my way'. The effects were dramatic.
Almost immediately, as travel restrictions eased, people tried to leave countries such as East Germany for the West. By November 1989 this exodus had become so marked that Egon Krenz, the newly appointed East German chancellor, ordered the border between East and West Germany to be opened. On 9 November, people from the two sides helped to demolish the Berlin Wall, for long a symbol of the divide. Within the next few weeks other countries of the Warsaw Pact were forced to bow to popular demands for change. Some of the countries involved, such as Poland, merely continued with reform that was already well established - General Jaruzelski had become president in 1989, with the non-Communist Tadeusz Mazowieki as prime minister. In other countries, however, the process was close to revolutionary. In Hungary, Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia, more liberal constitutions were thrashed out and Communist governments replaced. But not all the old regimes fell easily. In Romania Nicolae Ceausescu tried to prevent change by ordering repression, leading in December 1989 to his forcible overthrow and execution. In the new atmosphere of reform, events in Bucharest and elsewhere in Eastern Europe were shown live on Western television.
German reunification
Once the Berlin Wall had been breached, the two Germanys, created in the aftermath of World War II and perpetuated throughout the Cold War, inevitably came together. Negotiations for reunification began in mid-1990 and, after a superpower summit in Washington had agreed to it in principle, the process accelerated. By the end of the year, it was a reality. The new Germany, despite the history of Communism in its eastern half, remained part of NATO. This left little reason to retain the Warsaw Pact now that an integral part of it had 'changed sides', so on 1 July 1991 the Pact was dissolved. As this coincided with major breakthroughs in arms control and disarmament, many members of NATO began to relax their defensive guard, cutting force levels and expenditure.
Cooperation between the superpowers had already been shown during the crisis over Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990. A lack of Soviet opposition in the UN Security Council allowed the Americans to create and use a coalition of anti-Iraqi powers to liberate Kuwait in January/February 1991, implying that the international log-jam of the Cold War had been broken. The Cold War came to an official end in November 1990, when 34 countries representing the old East-West divide signed the Charter of Paris for a New Europe.
Collapse of the Soviet empire
Any hopes that a new era of peace and stability had dawned, however, were quickly dashed. By August 1991, as the Soviet economy continued to deteriorate and the old Soviet empire collapsed, a number of conservatives in the Politburo, led by Vice-President Yaneyev, lost patience with Gorbachov. On 19 August they tried to overthrow him, but their coup was badly planned and poorly executed. Boris Yeltsin, leader of the more radical reformers, established a base in the Russian Parliament Building and rallied popular support. By 21 August the coup was over and Gorbachov was back in power. But it quickly became apparent that his position had been undermined, not least by Yeltsin, who insisted on further reform. This led to demands for change from within the republics of the Soviet Union, which were gradually moving away from Russia.
In the immediate aftermath of the coup attempt, Gorbachov gave independence to the three Baltic republics (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and tried to organize the remainder into a looser federation known as the Union of Sovereign States (USS). When Yeltsin refused to give his support, all ideas of retaining a federated government under Russian domination came to an end. The USS was replaced by a Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), but this was merely a very loose collection of independent states, initially comprising Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Ten republics agreed to join, but Georgia opted not to join and Azerbaijan quickly followed suit, although both joined at a later date. Gorbachov retired, his job as head of the Communist Party having ceased to be relevant. What had been a superpower, capable of rivaling the USA on the world stage, had become a collection of disparate states.
Economic problems continued to undermine any attempt at central control by the CIS, which proved less effective than its founders hoped. Nationalist aspirations among the disparate people of the former Soviet Union led to various border and ethnic disputes. In Georgia a virtual civil war broke out between forces supporting ex-president Gamsakurdia and the new president, Eduard Shevardnadze. In Azerbaijan a war with neighboring Armenia, over possession of Nagorno-Karabakh, was complicated by an internal revolt against the Azeri government that culminated, on 15 July 1993, in a military coup. In 1994 Russian troops were sent into Chechnya to put down a nationalist rising, only to find that the fighting, especially in the capital Grozny, was tougher than expected. This, and the many other economic and political crises, undermined the authority of Yeltsin as Russian president.
* POLITICAL THEORIES
* INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS
* THE COLD WAR
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p452-3
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The Cold War and Beyond (page 3)
ftsTitle
The Croatian city of Dubrovnik in flames during the civil war between the former Yugoslav republics Croatia and Serbia in 1991. After the collapse of Communism in Yugoslavia, nationalist aspirations led to the secession of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. The bloody civil war fought between Croatia and Serb insurgents ended in 1992, but the fighting between Bosnian Serbs, Muslims and Croats led to the fiercest fighting and extensive 'ethnic cleansing'.
j The Cold War and Beyond (3 of 3)
Instability in Europe
Instability in the former Soviet republics was mirrored elsewhere in Europe. Some of the ex-members of the Warsaw Pact showed signs of coping with the changes - both Hungary and Poland, for example, enjoyed economic growth and increased contacts with the West - but others struggled to deal with the aftermath of Communism, experiencing economic slump and demands for autonomy from minority groups within their borders. Czechoslovakia solved its nationalist problems on 1 January 1993 when the country split into two independent countries - the Czech Republic and Slovakia. But elsewhere the process was less straightforward. In both Romania and Bulgaria there was a marked return to less liberal forms of government, storing up problems for the future.
But it was in a former Communist country that was never a member of the Warsaw Pact - Yugoslavia - that the worst problems emerged. Held together for years by the leadership of Tito and then, after his death in 1980, by the Communist Party, the country began to disintegrate at the same time as the Communist regimes of Eastern Europe. On 25 June 1991 Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence and, after short wars against federal troops, broke away from Belgrade. This encouraged other republics to follow suit. On 14 October 1991 Bosnia, a region containing a mixture of Muslims, Croats and Serbs, declared its independence, receiving recognition from the European Community in April 1992. But civil war soon broke out. Bosnian Serbs, who feared Croat-Muslim domination, declared themselves an independent republic, followed closely by the Bosnian Croats. Both new states contained large numbers of rival ethnic groups, leading to bitter fighting as each side tried to assert its own territorial area. UN peacekeeping forces were deployed to prevent the worst excesses of 'ethnic cleansing', but the fighting continued.
Fears were expressed that the misery endured in the former Yugoslavia was merely a prelude to similar ethnic and territorial rivalries throughout Eastern Europe and the former Soviet republics. If so, the chances of international stability and peace remain remote. The dangers inherent in the Cold War of nuclear confrontation between the superpowers may have gone, but they have been replaced by a vacuum in the East that may turn out to be just as dangerous.
In the Six-Day War (1967), Israel responded to Egyptian troop movement with air strikes and ground assaults.
The Middle East (1 of 4)
From Libya in the west to Iran in the east, from Turkey in the north to Yemen and Oman in the south, the Middle East has long been a center of tension and conflict. Lying astride some of the most important trade routes of the world - linking Africa, Asia and Europe - and containing valuable deposits of oil, it has attracted interference from a variety of outside powers. As a center of three major religions - Judaism, Christianity and Islam - it has endured a high level of internal discord, fueled in more recent times by nationalist and territorial disputes.
Until the end of World War I in 1918, much of the region was under Ottoman (Turkish) rule, but Western colonial powers - Britain, France and Italy - had already established their influence there, particularly since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 had offered a much shorter route from Europe to the Far East. After World War I major parts of the Ottoman Empire were given as 'mandates' of the League of Nations to Britain and France, with the intention of preparing them for eventual independence. France received 'Greater Syria' (part of which became the predominantly Christian state of Lebanon in 1920), while Britain received Iraq, Transjordan and Palestine.
The creation of Israel
From the time of the Roman Empire, the majority of Jews had been dispersed from Palestine. Since the late 19th century Palestine had been claimed by the Zionists, a group of Jews led by Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) who demanded a revived Jewish homeland on the basis of biblical rights. In November 1917, in an effort to ensure Jewish support for the war effort, the British foreign secretary, Arthur Balfour (1848-1930), had pledged his government to 'view with favor' the establishment of such a homeland once the Turks had been defeated. To the British, this meant no more than restricted Jewish immigration to Palestine once the mandate had been set up. To the Arabs it represented the first move in a Jewish seizure of their land; to the Zionists it was the first step in the creation of an independent Jewish state.
Britain was caught in the middle, attacked by both Jews and Arabs. In 1947 Britain referred the problem back to the United Nations (UN) as successor to the League of Nations. Palestine was partitioned between Arabs and Jews, allowing the state of Israel to emerge in May 1948. The response of neighboring Arab powers was immediate. Five armies - from Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon - invaded the new state, but were defeated in turn by the Israelis. By early 1949 Israel had secured its existence, but in order to survive it developed remarkably strong armed forces.
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE COLD WAR
* THE COLD WAR AND BEYOND
* JUDAISM
* ISLAM
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Six-Day War (1967)
VV++VV
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p454-2
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The Middle East (page 2)
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Israeli artillery during the Arab-Israeli war of 1973. Under cover of the Jewish religious festival of Yom Kippur, Egyptian and Syrian forces mounted a major attack on Israel. Despite heavy casualties, the Israeli Army managed to push its way into Syrian territory and encircle an Egyptian army by crossing the Suez Canal and establishing forces on the west bank of the Canal.
The Middle East (2 of 4)
The Arab-Israeli Wars
The prowess of Israeli armed forces was shown in October 1956, when Israel, in collusion with Britain and France - angry at Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal Company - invaded the desert region of Sinai. It was a short, sharp war and the Egyptians were defeated, but international pressure (particularly from the USA) forced the Israelis to withdraw. They were replaced in Sinai by a UN peacekeeping force.
After 1956 Arab nationalism grew, especially under the leadership of the Egyptian president, Gamal Abdul Nasser (1918-70). His contacts with Syria and Jordan alarmed Israel and when Egyptian troops were moved into Sinai in May 1967, it looked to the Israelis as if they were about to be attacked. The Israelis responded with a shattering strike against Arab air forces on 5 June, followed by a six-day ground campaign that defeated the Egyptians in Sinai, the Jordanians on the West Bank (that part of Jordan west of the River Jordan) and the Syrians on the Golan Heights overlooking northern Israel. Backed by the USA, who feared the growth of Soviet influence in the Arab world, the Israelis refused to withdraw, ensuring continued Arab enmity.
Egypt and Syria, intent on recovering their lost territory, tried and failed to force Israel to the conference table on the terms of UN Resolution 242, which called for a return to the borders of 1949. On 6 October 1973 Egypt and Syria simultaneously mounted major attacks, under cover of the Jewish religious holiday Yom Kippur. Caught by war on two fronts, the Israelis were hard-pressed, but they devised tactics to counter new Soviet-supplied weapons and defeated Egypt and Syria after 18 days of fighting. The high costs of the war helped to initiate a peace process between Egypt and Israel that culminated in a treaty signed in early 1979. In exchange for promises of peace, Egypt regained Sinai.
The Palestinians and Lebanon
Since 1948 the Palestinian Arabs had opposed the loss of their homeland to the Israelis, creating the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964. In 1970-71 the PLO, organized as a 'state-in-exile', was ousted from Jordan by King Hussein (1935- ), and many Palestinians fled to Lebanon. There they took advantage of the internal chaos of the country, split between Christian and Muslim sects. A civil war between these sects in 1975-76 led to Syrian intervention. The Israelis regarded this as another threat to their security and the situation became worse with increasing guerrilla attacks on Israel by the Palestinians.
In June 1982 Israeli forces invaded southern Lebanon, intent on destroying the PLO and creating a Christian-dominated buffer between Israel and the Syrian positions. Israeli forces reached Beirut in less than six days, but soon became bogged down in a war of attrition. By June 1985 the Israelis, weakened by the seemingly endless commitment to Lebanon, had withdrawn, leaving a buffer zone on their border. Lebanon disintegrated, allowing the Syrians to increase their influence. In 1991 Syrian forces defeated the Lebanese Christian militias and the Lebanese government established control over the whole of Beirut, but parts of the country remained beyond its rule.
Yasser Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin shake hands in front of US President Bill Clinton after the signing of the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Accord of 1993. This historic document granted the Palestinians limited self-government in the Gaza Strip and Jericho, and provided for eventual Palestinian self-government on the West Bank. Negotiations over the implementation of the accord made slow progress and were hampered by continuing violence between Arabs and Jewish settlers in the Occupied Territories, and a terrorist campaign by Islamic fundamentalist groups such as Hamas.
@ + The Middle East (3 of 4)
Wars in the Gulf
The situation in Lebanon was exacerbated by the rise of Islamic fundamentalism. This had its origins in the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979, when the Shah was overthrown by Shi'ite Muslims under the Ayatollah Khomeini (1900-89), who was intent on a fundamentalist Islamic revival. This led to tensions with Arab countries in the Middle East ruled by more secular Sunni Muslims. In its most dramatic form it led to the Iran-Iraq War.
Territorial disputes over the Shatt-al-Arab waterway, coupled with religious and ethnic differences, led to an Iraqi invasion of Iran in September 1980. The fighting continued for eight years, with an estimated death toll of 1 million. As both sides tried to destroy the other's oil trade by attacking oil tankers in the Gulf, American, Russian, French and British warships were deployed to protect shipping. A cease-fire in 1988 imposed a shaky peace, but the dangers of escalation to more general war had been apparent.
What had been intended by Iraq as a quick victory resulted in the virtual bankruptcy of the country. In an attempt to restore Iraq's economy, President Saddam Hussein (1937- ) ordered the invasion of neighboring oil-rich Kuwait on 2 August 1990. The international community was almost unanimous in its condemnation of the invasion and UN sanctions against Iraq were imposed. Iraq annexed Kuwait and refused to withdraw despite repeated UN demands. The UN Security Council authorized armed action by a US-led coalition to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation, and on 16 January 1991 the Gulf War began with a massive coalition air campaign. The following month, coalition forces entered Iraqi and Kuwaiti territory in a short ground war that put an end to the occupation of Kuwait.
When the future of the Ba'athist Party dictatorship of Saddam Hussein appeared to be in danger, Iraq accepted all the UN resolutions regarding Kuwait and agreed to a cease-fire. During March and April 1991 - with coalition forces occupying parts of southern Iraq - Saddam suppressed revolts by Shi'ites in the south and Kurds in the north. International efforts were made to feed and protect over 1 million Shi'ite and Kurdish refugees. Coalition air patrols continued over southern and northern Iraq and sanctions against Saddam's regime remained in place.
* DECOLONIZATION
* THE COLD WAR
* THE COLD WAR AND BEYOND
* JUDAISM
* ISLAM
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The Middle East (page 4)
ftsTitle
At the end of the Gulf War (1991) the withdrawing Iraqi troops set on fire over 600 oil wells in northern Kuwait. It took nearly a year to extinguish the fires, which caused considerable environmental damage.
The Middle East (4 of 4)
The Arab-Israeli peace process
Israel did not take part in the Gulf War despite coming under missile attack from Iraq. This restraint, coupled with Arab, particularly Syrian, participation in the coalition, gave new impetus to attempts to find a peaceful solution to the Arab-Israeli dispute. Widespread Palestinian demonstrations against continued Israeli rule in the Gaza Strip and West Bank, the Intifada, which began in December 1987, put pressure on Israel, while the Palestinian leader, Yasser Arafat (1929- ), pursued international recognition. In late October 1991, after lengthy negotiations with the Americans, Israel and the Arab powers met in Madrid for preliminary talks.
Initially, little was achieved, but secret negotiations brokered by the Norwegians led to a sudden breakthrough on 13 September 1993. In an agreement between the Israelis and PLO it was decided that Israeli forces would withdraw from the Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank, making way for a degree of Palestinian self-rule. Reaction to the agreement was strong among more militant Israelis and extremist Palestinians belonging to Hamas and the Islamic Jihad, but by May 1994 Palestinian police had replaced Israeli soldiers in Gaza and Jericho. The breakthrough triggered further negotiations, leading in October 1994 to a peace treaty between Israel and Jordan. Much remained to be done, particularly to gain a similar agreement between Israel and Syria. Terrorist attacks in Israel by extremist groups like Hamas also threatened negotiations. But after 46 years of conflict, the Arab- Israeli dispute seemed closer to permanent settlement.
ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM
The Islamic faith has been split for centuries between the Shi'ites, who believe in a strict adherence to the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad as laid down in the Koran, and the Sunnis, who take a more moderate and secular view. In 1979 the overthrow of the Shah of Iran brought a leading Shi'ite cleric, Ayatollah Khomeini, to power and his popularity led to a surge of support among Muslims for a return to the fundamentals of their religion. This involved strict control of people's lives, a concentration of political power in the hands of clerics, and opposition to many of the symbols of modern society, invariably associated with Western influence. Islamic fundamentalists inevitably clashed with Sunnis, who ruled many of the Arab powers in the Middle East, and spread elsewhere among Muslim people.
These tensions were manifested in the Iran-Iraq War (1980-88; see text), but despite the high costs of that war fundamentalism gained momentum, feeding on poverty and political uncertainty. By the 1990s fundamentalists were well entrenched in Sudan, where Iranian funding set up training camps for activists in what was becoming an anti-Western revolution. In Algeria and Egypt fundamentalists threatened to overthrow existing governments, using terror to undermine tourism and the economy. In Gaza and the West Bank, Palestinian fundamentalists belonging to Hamas and the Islamic Jihad opposed the peace process with Israel. As Communism declined and the Soviet Union disintegrated, fundamentalism also spread into Muslim provinces of the former Soviet Central Asian republics, such as Tajikistan. Islamic fundamentalism is also a growing influence in Sudan, Malaysia, Tunisia and Turkey.
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